Tibetan Buddhism, with its large influenced areas, various internal sects, large quantity of monasteries and onks, nuns and followers, not only has exerted profound and extensive influence on the fields of politics, the economy, culture and so on, but also made its way into neighoring nationalities.
Before the peaceful liberation of Tibet in 1951, and even efore the Democratic Reform of 1959, Tibet had long been society of feudal serfdom under the despotic religious/political rule of monks and nobles. Tibetan Buddhism domi-ated the ideology of Tibetan people, and the upper class of uddhist monks directly engaged in state affairs, which went entirely beyond the normal functions of religion. It was not ntil the Democratic Reform that Tibet was able to abolish eudal serfdom and launch the necessary religious reforms to achieve a separation of religion and state. The Chinese government strictly implemented the policy of religious freedom, liberating the masses in the fields of ideology, culture, production and living. Statistics show that, before the Democratic Reform, in the Tibet autonomous region, there were altogether 2,711 Tibetan Buddhist monasteries of various sects, 114,103 Buddhist monks and nuns (including 4000 living Buddhas of the upper class), which accounted for the 10 percent of the entire population. Other Tibetan areas showed a similar proportion. For instance, in Qinghai Province, there were 722 Buddhist monasteries, 57,647 Buddhist monks and nuns (among them 1,240 liv- ing Buddhas); in Sichuan Province, 747 monasteries, 93,700 monks and nuns; in Gansu Province, 369 monasteries, 16,900 monks and nuns (310 living Buddhas); in the Diqin Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Yunnan Province, 3,233 monks and nuns, with 34 living Buddhas. The number of s monasteries and monks and nuns in the Inner Mongolian and Xinjiang autonomous regions were not included. Altogether, there were 285,583 monks and nuns residing in 4,573 monasteries. With so many people not taking part in production activities, undeniably, they added a heavy economic burden on the local people of the Tibetan areas.
After the Democratic Reform, the politico-religion system was abolished in the Tibetan areas, and the freedom of religious belief actually became a personal affair. It was a historical reform in the history of Tibetan Buddhism. According to statistics of 1965, about 553 monasteries and 6,913 monks and nuns still remained, which matched the ectual situation of the Tibetan areas. The movement was a ractice of national religious policy of the Chinese govern- ent on Tibet, with the result of not only liberating produc-ive forces, but also satisfying the needs of followers of ibetan Buddhism. During the period of the Cultural evolution, in Tibet as in other parts of China, the policy on reedom of religious belief was disrupted, and the broad mass f adherents of Tibetan Buddhism were greatly hurt. ollowing the introduction of the open and reform policy of 1978, however, Tibetan Buddhist followers once again ained the right of freedom of religious belief, with a wave of reconstruction and renovation of Buddhist monasteries, and the re-emergence of monks and nuns throughout the Tibet Autonomous Region. This indirectly showed that Tibetan Buddhism was widely worshiped by fervent Tibetan people.
At present, Tibetan Buddhism has stepped onto a new historical stage with sound development. It has been in a stage of maturity and stability in terms of organizations of monasteries, monastic disciplines, as well as Buddhist activities. Latest statistics indicate that, in the Tibetan areas, which cover the Tibet Autonomous Region, Qinghai, Sichuan, Gansu and Yunnan provinces, there are altogether 2,769 monasteries, about half the number that existed be- fore the Democratic Reform. As for the distribution or influ- ence of different Buddhist sects, the Gelug Sect is the most extensive and influential, with 1,460 monasteries covering the Tibetan areas, around half the total number of monasteries of all Buddhist sects of Tibetan Buddhism. Its influence is represented by seven main monasteries, which include: three in Lhasa, namely the Gandain, Zhaibung and Sera monasteries, the capital remaining a sacred place for pilgrimage; the Tashilhungpo Monastery located in Xigaze, the resident monastery of the Panchen Lama, has won high prestige among Buddhist followers; the Qambarlhin Mon-astery in Qamdo, was the resident monastery of Living Bud- dha Pabalha and has exerted influence in the locality; the Tar Monastery in Hungzong county of Qinghai province, was the place where Master Tsongkapa was born; the Labrang Monastery in Shahe county of Gansu Province, the resident monastery of Living Buddha Jamyang, has great influence among Buddhist worshipers in the Tibetan areas of Gansu, Qinghai and Sichuan provinces. Generally speaking, the Gelug Sect mainly enjoys influence in the Tibet Autono- mous Region, followed by the Tibetan areas of Qinghai and Gansu provinces.
The Niyngma Sect was the second most influential sect, with 753 monasteries covering the Tibet Autonomous Region, Sichuan, Qinghai, Gansu, and Yunnan provinces. Among them, the Ganzi and Arbe areas of Sichuan Province were its main sphere of influence, represented by Garto Monastery, the White Jade Monastery and Zoqin Monastery. The Tibet Autonomous Region, where the Nyingma Sect originated, also has its influence, with the Mincholhin and Dorjezha monasteries as its most representative. The Kargyu Sect at present has 366 monasteries cover-ing the Tibetan areas, with the Tibet Autonomous Region and the Yushu Prefecture of Qinghai Province as its two main centers of activity. It is third in terms of scale and influence.
The Sakya Sect has 141 monasteries, with the Sakya Monastery as its ancestral and representative one. Its influence was limited in the Tibet Autonomous Region. In addition, the Gyunam Sect has 37 monasteries, mainly distributed in the Arbe Prefecture of Sichuan Province and the Golo Prefecture of Qinghai Province, with the Ramtan Monastery as its main representatives. With regard to other Buddhist sects, such as the Kardam, Shigye, Gyoyu and Bulug, they exist in the Tibetan areas only as theoretical and not practical sects.
1) The Nyingma Sect
The Nyingma Sect has the longest history among all the sects"of Tibetan Buddhism. "Nyingma" literally means "ancient" or "old", thus the "Nyingma Sect" means "the old sect". Its name traces back to the Indian master, Guru Padmasambhava, also known as Guru Rinpoche, who came to Tibet in 817 at the invitation of King Trisong Detsan. The Nyingma Sect was said to carry on tantric teachings as well as related practices and rituals, which were handed down from "the first dissemination period of Tibetan Buddhism". The sect is also known as the "Red Sect" or "Red Hat Sect", for the red hat that eminent monks used to wear, but it does not seem to be an appropriate title.
As an independent sect, Nyingma was formed in "the second dissemination period of Tibetan Buddhism", as no sects were formed in "the first dissemination period of Tibetan Buddhism". In its early days, tantric teachings were handed down orally from father to son or teacher to close disciple, so the Nyingma Sect did not form a unified systematic doctrine, as well as established and authoritative monasteries, thus leading to a relaxed monastic institution. Although the teachings and lineage of the Nyingma Sect are comparatively complex, they fall into three transmission lineages: Kama, namely Oral Transmission Lineage; II. Terma, namely Concealed Treasures Transmission lineage; III. Daknang, Visionary Lineage.
In the early stage of "the second dissemination period of Tibetan Buddhism", three masters crucial to the formation of the Nyingma Sect deserve special mention. They are historically called the "Three Master Sois", namely Soipoqeb Sakyaqoinam, Soiqoi Xirabzhaba, Soi Sakyasanga. Master Soipoqeb Sakyaqoinam, from his childhood, followed many tantric masters at that time, and learned extensive texts of the Nyingma Sect, gradually grasping various tantric doctrines popular at that time. For instance, he followed Master Nang Yexe Qoinam and studied the Imaginary Tantra, and then Master Togar Namkala imparted to him the Collection of Tantras. As the result, Soipoqeb Sakyaqoinam basically learned all the tantric teachings handed down from the distant lineage of Buddhist scriptures. Later, Soipoqeb Sakyaqoinam presented Great Master Chomi Sakyayeshe with 100 tael of gold, in return learning the Path to the Great Perfection. After various instructions of great masters of the Nyingma Sect and through his own hard work, Soipoqeb Sakyaqoinam rose to be a famous master with good command of the doctrines of the Nyingma Sect and one immersed in religious knowledge. What deserves mention is that he established the Wobalhung Monastery, setting up a unified center of religious activities for the Nyingma Sect. From then on, Master Soipoqeb Sakyaqoinam set out to launch a series of religious activities to develop the doctrines of the Nyingma Sect. It was a new era for the sect, as the establishment of the Wobalhung Monas- tery allowed it to join the line of regular monasteries with complete teachings and rituals as well as a monastery institution, ending its former scattered structure and noninstitutional condition.
When Master Soipoqeb Sakyaqoinam passed away, Soiqoi Xirabzhaba succeeded him. He-in turn established and completed the regulations and institutions of the monasteries, as he took in charge of the Wobalhung and Chopo monasteries and the meditation place of Zhagyewo, ensuring their religious activities took on a regular form, For instance, he ordered that religious activities in the Wobalhung Monastery should be held in the morning, at noon in the Chopo Monastery, and in the evening at Zhagyewo. At the same time, in order to expand the scale of religious activities, he presided over the construction of a grand temple, named the Air Flying Temple, which was supported by nine main pillars. Altogether, 42 statues of Buddha were housed there; on the walls were paintings of the Mandala. Other small temples were also built at that time. Master Soiqoi Xirabzhaba made great achievements in the theory of Buddhist Tantra, especially in Buddhist Logic. Famous for his great debating ability, he came to be one of the main rivals of many Buddhist monks from the newly rising sects of Tibetan Buddhism when they debated the scriptures. As he was always victorious and gained great prestige, many his rivals in the end willingly became his disciples. Because a large number of Buddhist monks of the Nyingma Sect at that time were laymen, rather than ordained monks, they put more emphasis on the practice of Tantricism, instead of the study of Sutric theory. On the condition that there were quite limited talents in good command of debate in Buddhist Tantras in the Nyingma Sect, Master Soiqoi Xirabzhaba distinguished himself and made an important contribution to the good image of the Nyingma Sect among other Buddhist sects.
Soi Sakyasanga, also known as Lhagyiqinbo Chopoba, was born in 1074, when his father, Master Soiqoi Xirabzhaba died. Historical Tibetan records show that Master Soiqoi Xirabzhaba had three sons and several daughters, who were all Buddhist monks or nuns practicing the doctrines of the Nyingma Sect. Master Soi Sakyasanga, the last son, was the only one to make great achievements and continue his father's cause. He was brought up by his mother and uncle to man- age family affairs as he learned much knowledge at home before the age of fifteen. At that time, the family was well off so that someone needed to be in charge of family affairs. In the following four years from the age of fifteen, Soi Sakyasanga left home to follow one master or another, systematically learning Buddhist sutras and Tantras, especially all the tantric teachings of distant lineage of the Nyingma Sect. In the end, he became the successor of this lineage. Chopo Monastery, as his place of residence, was reconstructed and renovated on a large scale. It usually held largescale religious activities four times every year, namely spring, summer, autumn, and winter gatherings. In 1134, Soi Sakyasanga passed away at the age of 60. In his brief life, he contributed to furthering the formal monastery development of the Nyingma Sect, successfully completing the tasks and responsibilities of an occupational Buddhist master.
Due to the ceaseless efforts of the three masters, the Nyingma Sect had evolved into an independent sect with established monasteries, systematic Buddhist classics and fixed monastic institutions. It also won a certain prestige at that time. The lineage belonged to the distant Buddhist classics lineage, which is the most orthodox and authoritative lineage and is still being handed down.
Besides the three masters above, there is another figure that made a special contribution to the development of the Nyingma Sect., namely Lhungqin Rabgyamba, born in 1308 with the name of Zimei Aosei. At the age of twelve, he became a Buddhist monk and studied tantric teachings before many masters of the Nyingma Sect and other sects at that time. He also studied the Five Sutras by Maitreya, Seven Sutras of Buddhist Logic by Dharmak and other Tantras. Therefore, Lhungqin Rabgyamba came to be a famous master proficient in tantric and sutric teachings. He was a prolific master and his most important works are 35 Kinds ofNyingti Practices and Seven Tibetan Commentaries, which mainly expounded the teachings of Great Perfection, the highest stage of practice of the Nyingma Sect. In his later years, he lectured on another profound Tantra, the Flying Air Nyingti, and contributed much to its dissemination, before dying in 1363 at the age of 56.
In his short life, Master Lhungqin Rabgyamba not only completed and developed the teachings and doctrines of the Nyingma Sect, but also cultivated many famous Buddhist monks. He played a crucial role in the expansion of the sect's influence. He also visited Bhutan, where he built the Tarbalin Monastery, and that led to the eventual spread of the Nyingma Sect, to Nepal. Eventually, many Buddhist monks from Bhutan and Nepal came to Choqin Monastery to learn the teachings of the Nyingma Sect.
The Nyingma Sect further developed in the 17th century under the patronage of the 5th Dalai. He not only supported the sect's original monasteries, promoting the influence of Dorjezha Monastery and Minchulhin Monastery, but also built in person a new monastery called the Monastery of Longevity Continent for imparting the teachings of the Nyingma Sect. He also ordered the transformation of Lhalung Monastery in Lozha, in the Shannan area, built by Dusting Qenba, the founder of the Khanna Kargyu sect, into a monastery of the Nyingma Sect. Furthermore, the social position of the Nyingma Sect greatly improved at that time. Since the period of the 5th Dalai, the local government of Tibet used to inv"ite Buddhist monks of the Nyingma Sect to practice divination and help them when they encountered war and other turmoil, natural disasters, plague and so on. Therefore, during the time of the 5th Dalai, the influence and development of the Nyingma Sect reached its zenith.
At present, there are altogether 753 Buddhist monaster- ies of the Nyingma Sect throughout the Tibetan areas of China, second only to the Gelug Sect among all the sects of Tibetan Buddhism. As a sect with the longest history, it has undergone a prolonged historical process of evolution. As we know, a batch of famous monasteries, including Samye monastery in the Tibet Autonomous Region, were built in the 8th century. But this was not enough for the Nyingma Sect, and there were also many other old monasteries in the Tibetan areas. For instance, Master Birocana, one of the fast batch of Buddhist monks in "the first dissemination period of Tibetan Buddhism", went to promote Buddhism to today's Arba Tibetan area of Sichuan province in the 8th century. He did much to propagate Buddhism there: He translated foreign Buddhist scriptures into Tibetan, practiced meditation, imparted Buddhist doctrines to local disciples, and made efforts to build monasteries. Due to his great efforts, the Arba Tibetan area saw a flourishing of Tibetan Buddhism of the Nyingma Sect, with more monasteries than any other sect, a unique phenomenon in areas influenced by Tibetan Buddhism. So, the Nyingma Sect not only has a long history in the Arba Tibetan area, but also great influence there.
In addition, Tubo Buddhism, predecessor of the Nyingma Sect, was introduced in succession into the Diqen Tibetan area of Yunnan province in the 8th century. Although at present the number of the Buddhist monasteries of the Nyingma Sect stands only the third there, it was the place where the sect was first introduced into Tibetan areas.
Tubo Buddhism was introduced into Qinghai Tibetan areas in the 9th century. In 841, when King Lhang Dharma launched a move to suppress Buddhism, three Tibetan Buddhist monks, namely Mar Shakya Yeshi, Yogejung and Tsang Rabsel, fled to the Tibetan areas in the eastern part of Qinghai Province, taking with them many Buddhist sutras on monastic disciplines. They made great contributions to preventing the Dharma from disappearing they lectured on Buddhism and cultivated Buddhist disciple in Gyanzha county of Hongnam Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and in the Haiton areas, such as Shenho, Holhung. Huzhu, Lhedo, Xining and so on. Many monasteries were built at that time as centers of religious activities, including Dando Monastery and White Horse Monastery. At present, many monasteries of the Nyingma Sect are found throughout the Tibetan areas of Qinghai province, second in number to the Gelng Sect.
The monasteries of the Nyingma Sect mainly cover four provinces: the Tibetan Autonomous Region, with 344 monasteries; Ganzi and Arbe of Sichuan Province, with 262 monasteries; Tibetan areas of Gansu Province, with eight monasteries and Diqen Tibetan area of Yunnan Province, with four monasteries. The figures above clearly show that monasteries of the Nyingma Sect mainly distributed in the Tibet Autonomous Region and Sichuan Province. In terms of time of construction, several monasteries such as Samye Monastery were built during "the first dissemination period of Tibetan Buddhism", while a large number were built dur- ing "the second dissemination period of Tibetan Buddhism". So other sects' monasteries in the course of construction influenced the monasteries of the Nyingma Sect. At present, many monasteries of the Nyingma Sect, whether in terms of construction scale or of monastic institution, can match those of other sects, even of the Gelug Sect - such as Karto, Choqin and White Jade monasteries of the Ganzi area of Sichuan Province, and Samye, Minchulhin and Doijezha monasteries of the Sharman area of the Tibet Autonomous Region.
Karto Monastery located 20 kilometers north of White Jade County of"the Ganzi Tibetan prefecture of Sichuan Province, was a monastery with a long history. It was built by Eminent Monk Gardampa Desheshiba, a disciple of Master Chopuba, one of three master Sois of the Nyingma Sect, in the middle of the 12th century. In its heyday, Karto Monastery occupied an area of 1,000,000 square meters, and had 48 sutra-reciting halls, 42 sutra-debating halls, and 513 residential houses for Buddhist monks. The monastery also had 11 sutra-printing halls; where over 900 Buddhist scriptures in Tibetan or Sanskrit were housed. The most famous build- ings were its three Buddha temples`. The first temple housed a bronze stupa from India, with a height of 9.4 meters; the second temple housed a bronze statue of Buddha Sakyamuni, with a height of 8 meters; and the third temple was a tantric temple. In terms of succession of Buddhist teachings and rituals, Karto Monastery imparted what belonged to the Minchulhin School called "Southern Lineage", as well as "the Distant Lineage of Buddhist Scriptures" of the Nyingma Sect. The Abbot of the monastery succeeded under the system of "Reincarnation of the Living Buddha ". Generally speaking, Karto Monastery was an established monastery of the Nyingma Sect, with a large scale, complete equipment and structure. Before the peaceful liberation of 1959, under the patronage of Tusi Dege, Karto Monastery furthered its development and influence and gained higher prestige in the Tibetan areas, leading to ceaseless worshipers going to pay homage. Today, after large-scale reconstruction and renovation directed by the Chinese government, Karto Monastery has resumed its former splendid and is thriving.
In 1675, the White Jade Monastery was built by an eminent monk called Renzengungsam Xirab, near White Jade County of the Ganzi area in Sichuan Province and became another famous monastery of the Nyingma Sect. The monastery is characterized by its teachings and practices of Buddhist sutras and Tantras, which is different from other establishments of the Nyingma Sect. It has some relationship to the teachings and rituals of the Marcangpa sub-sect of the Pachu Kargyu Sect of Tibetan Buddhism. For instance, although the Abbot of the White Jade Monastery was chosen through the system of Reincarnation of the Living Buddha, they had to go to Dege Barbang Monastery of the Karma Kargyu Sect to receive ordination from Living Buddha Situ. Here it should be explained that Barbang Monastery, the ancestral temple of Tusi Dege, held a special position in the areas of Tusi Dege. So, there had been particular political and cultural background with regard to the phenomenon that the Buddhist teachings and rituals of the Nyingma Sect were merged with that of the Kargyu Sect. Nonetheless, White Jade Monastery has always been regarded as being of the Nyingma Sect, and has many sub-monasteries. Related materials have it that the White Jade Monastery owns over 100 sub-monasteries of the Nyingma Sect in many Tibetan areas, such as the Arba and Ganzi areas of Sichuan Province, Gyamda in the Qamdo area of the Tibet Autonomous Region, Golo of Qinghai Province and so on. So, it is clear that White Jade Monastery is of crucial importance throughout Tibetan areas.
In 1684, the fifth Dalai Lama Arwan Lobsang Gyacho ordered his disciple Baima Renzem, a great scholar and eminent Buddhist monk of the Nyingma Sect, to go to the area of Kam to spread Buddhism. With the support of Tusi Lhinchong and Tusi Dege, Master Baima Renzem constructed Choqin Monastery northeast of Dege. Master Baima Renzem, the abbot of the Choqin Monastery, was posthumously admitted as its first Living Buddha. Thanks to various degree of support from the central government of the Qing Dynasty, local forces and neighboring countries, Choqin Monastery rose to become a most famous monastery of the Nyingma Sect in the area of Shikam, with its scale and speed of development and other aspects exceeding that of Karto and White Jade monasteries. Sichuan Province Archives show that, "in the ninth year of King Yongzheng of-the Qing Dynasty (1731), Prince Go came to the area of Kam, and presented 100 statues of gilded Buddha. The third Renboqin, whose mother was Dala's aunt, established a sutra-preaching monastery financed by the forces of Tibet. Bhutan sent its Buddhist monks to study scriptures, and engaged with much money the first Lama of the monastery as its state master. The fifth Renboqin received the donation from Bhutan, and set up a senior sutra-preaching monastery and accommodated those who studied in the monastery without charge. Due to various support and assistance, Choqin Monastery developed with great speed and came to be the most important of the three monasteries of the Nyingma Sect in the Tibetan areas of Sichuan province." The words above show how Choqin Monastery flourished and, meanwhile, Choqin itself did much to contribute to the development of the Nyingma Sect. For instance, in the teachings of Buddhism, it took after what the Gelug Sect had achieved in systematic study of the theory of Buddhist sutras, offering 13 compulsory courses of Buddhist scriptures of the Open School of Tibetan Buddhism, which was equal to the five sutras of that learned in the Gelug Sect. In addition, it taught the works of Master Lhungqin Jamraba and other famous scholars of the Nyingma Sect.
Therefore, the Choqin Monastery came to be the central monastery where teachings of the Nyingma Sect were systematically imparted in the Ganzi, Arba areas, even throughout the Tibetan areas. It even turned into the highest institution for attaining advanced Buddhist knowledge and study Tibetan traditional culture. Before the peaceful liberation of 1959, it housed 500-600 resident monks, and "it seemed that its prestige had surpassed that of the Dorjezha Monastery and the Minchulhin Monastery in the Lhasa areas." "Buddhist monks of the Nyingma Sect from various places went here for study, and among of them included Buddhist monks from Bhutan and Nepal." Therefore, the Choqin Monastery has won high prestige not only throughout the Tibetan areas of the People's Republic of China, but also in neighboring countries. As far as in the Tibetan areas of PRC is concerned, there are altogether over 100 sub-monasteries of the Nyingma Sect of Tibetan Buddhism, mainly covering the Arba and Ganzi areas of Sichuan Province, and the Yushu area of Qinghai Province.
As the place where Tibetan Buddhism originated and flourished, the Tibet Autonomous Region owned a large number of monasteries of various sects, which was unrivalled throughout the Tibetan areas. As far as the Nyingma Sect is concerned, the Dorjezha and Minchulhin monasteries have exerted great influence not only in the Tibet Autonomous Region, but also throughout the Tibetan areas.
The Dorjezha Monastery was located on the foot of a cliff on the northern bank of the Yarlung Tsangpo River, in Gonggar County of the Sharman area. Seen from a distance, the medium-scale monastery blends well with the cliff, constituting a grand landscape. Dorjezha Monastery was said to have been built by a noble called Zhaxi Dotje whose family had been in decline. Dorjezha, in Tibetan literally means Diamond Cliff, originated from a green stone called Varja naturally produced on the cliff at the back of the monastery, hence the monastery's name. After its construction, especially owing to the strong support of the fifth Dalai Lama, Dorjezha Monastery developed with great speed. At its height, it housed over 2,000 resident monks, which was rare in the monasteries of the Nyingma Sect. The monastery was destroyed in the Cultural Revolution, and after the third plenary session of the eleventh Central Committee of Communist Party of China (CPC) in 1978, the central government earmarked much money to be used in its reconstruction and renovation. Living Buddha Dorjezha Jambeilobsung, deputy chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Committee (CPPCC) of the Tibet Autonomous Region, and deputy director of Chinese Buddhism Committee, usually went to Dorjezha Monastery to preside over Buddhist activities. At present, the Dorjezha Monastery manages well, and most of its 29 monks are aged between 16 and 30, with only two old monks, respectively aged 71 and 77. All the monks, except one from Renbo County of Xigaze, are natives of Gonggar County. Dorjezha Monastery has a strict institution system. It set up the Democratic Management Commission of the Dorjezha Monastery in charge of its finances, religious activities, and daily affairs. The commission is composed of one director, two deputy directors and three members, and every one has his responsibility. With regard to its teaching lineage, it calls itself the ancestral monastery of the Northern Lineage of the Nyingma Sect of Tibetan Buddhism, with many sub-monasteries all around the Tibetan areas, especially Sichuan Province. Dorjezha Monastery has kept close relations with Choqin Monastery, which is in Dege County of the Ganzi area of Sichuan Province. As both of the monasteries belong to the Northern Lineage of the Nyingma Sect, Dorjezha and Choqin monas- teries share similar Buddhist teachings, doctrines and reli- gious rituals, and at the same time, they have learned from each other to offset their respective weakness. At present, in practical use of the Buddhist teachings and rituals, especially grasp 6f Buddhist knowledge, Dorjezha Monastery lags far behind Choqin Monastery, so the former often engages many eminent monks from the latter as teachers to raise the general standard of religious and cultural knowledge of its monks. Generally speaking, as one out of two monasteries of the Nyingma Sect with the highest prestige in the Tibet Autonomous Region (the other is the Mincholhing Monastery), Dorjezha Monastery not only has a high reputation among adherents in the Tibetan Autonomous Region, but has also exerted a certain influence throughout the Tibetan area. It is worth noting that the Abbot of Dorj ezha Monastery succeeded according to the system of Reincar- nation of the Living Buddha, and the title of Dorjezha Monastery was respectfully called "Renchenginmo Dorjezha Jambeilobsam Gyinmeinamzogyacho". The present Living Buddha is the tenth Living Buddha Rechenqinmo Dorjezha Jambeilobsam, whose rank in the CPPCC of the Tibet Autonomous Region indicates the concern and hope of the Chinese Communist Party and central government towards Dorjezha Monastery.
Mincholhin Monastery, located in Zhache Village of Zhanam County in the Shannan area, was famous for the succession and propagation of teachings of the Southern Lineage of the Nyingma Sect in the Tibetan areas. In was built in 1676 by Master Dedalhiba, who once served as the fifth Dalai Lama's teacher imparting to him the terma (Concealed Treasure) of the Nyingma Sect. Apart from spreading the teachings and rituals of the Southern Lineage, Mincholhin Monastery was celebrated for its study of the "Ten Treatises of Buddhism Doctrines", which covers the whole system of Tibetan traditional culture, including Rhetoric, Worlds and Expressions, Syntax, Drama, Astrology, Technology, Medicine, Grammar, Logic and Philosophy. It deserves mention that Mincholhin Monastery distinguishes itself from other monasteries of the Nyingma Sect, which tent to emphasize religious practices and meditations while belittling the importance of the study of Buddhist theory. Mincholhin Monastery, particularly, not only attaches great importance to the general grasp of theoretical knowledge of Tibetan Buddhism, but also makes efforts to probe Tibetan traditional culture systematically and has attained great achievements. Thus, Mincholhin Monastery became a comprehensive university on Tibetan Buddhism, not only probing Tibetan traditional culture but also going beyond the sphere of religious culture. Before the peaceful liberation of Tibet in 1951, innumerable monks from other areas were attracted to Mincholhing Monastery to study because of its reputation, including many officials of local governments who were attracted to learn Tibetan traditional culture. Therefore, it seems that its contribution to the prosperity and development of Tibetan traditional culture is far greater than the role it played in the development of the Nyingma Sect itself. For instance, the handwriting skill that Mincholhin Monastery achieved was well known. This influenced Tibetan calligraphers over many generations, and greatly furthered the development of the cause of Tibetan calligraphy. In addition, in the 18th to the 19th centuries, there arose many eminent Buddhist monks of the Nyingma Sect who were proficient in the "Ten Treatises of Buddhism Doctrines" and created high achievements in Tibetan traditional culture, which obviously advanced the good environment for studying Tibetan traditional culture that the Mincholhin Monastery had created and advocated.
At present, it has 53 resident monks, with five aged from 45 to 74; and the others ranging in age from 17 to 34. Among them, except for two who are respectively from Chomei and Samri counties, all are natives of Zhanam County. The monastery is managed democratically and composed of a chief director, deputy director and members. It still maintains its advantage in advocating and promoting the good tradition of studying Tibet traditional culture.
The Samye Monastery, as we know, is presided over by the Nyingma, Sagya, and Gelug sects. The guardian halls of the Nyingma and Sagya sects house respectively the sacred guardian deities of the two sects, showing they not only possess their own powers within the monastery, but also take responsibility to protect its dignity and authority. Within the sharing arrangement, there is no priority in terms of religious rituals, which means that each of the three sects has equal rights. Rituals are staged based mainly on a collective decision by followers of the three sects. Therefore, from the viewpoint of the monastery itself, the lines between the sects are definitely blurred.
As is well known, Jokhang is a celebrated monastery of Tibetan Buddhism at home and abroad. In the view of history, Jokhang was among the first batch of temples built during the reign of King Songtsan Gampo, so it can be regarded as of the Nyingma Sect. The Jokhang is listed as one of the national important culture relics under special protection, and it has been rebuilt and renovated many times by the local and central Chinese government. Among the mass followers of Tibetan Buddhism, the Samye Monastery, especially the Statues of Buddha Sakyamuni housed in the temple, has enjoyed a sacred and pre-eminent positions Hence, Jokhang has become a sacred temple dominating the various sects of Tibetan Buddhism, without distinct dividing lines between them. Here it is worth noting that in 1409, Master Tsongkapa, the founder of the Gelug Sect, successfully held in Jokhang the Grand Prayer Ceremony, the largest ever in terms of scale, content and significance, and thereafter, the Gelug Sect has continued the tradition to hold large-scale ceremonies until today. Although the Gelug Sect naturally became the sect managing the daily affairs of Jokhang, because of good timing, geographical convenience and harmonious human relations it developed, nevertheless there is no distinct idea of sects in the Jokhang. Not only are many principal Buddhas and guardian deities worshiped there, but it also has many statues of eminent monks of various sects of Tibetan Buddhism as well as paintings related to them. Around the temple are the halls of various sects of Tibetan Buddhism, packed with worshipers at every season. At any time, every influential sect can hold its religious rituals and activities there. Every year, millions of Buddhist adherents have come to Jokhang to pay homage, along with innumerable disciples and tourists. Although the Samye, Jokhang and Chamzhub monasteries are composite monasteries blending various sects of Tibetan Buddhism, among disciples of the Nyingma Sect, even eminent monks through the generations, share the unswerving view that the three monasteries mentioned above are their ancestral monasteries, which is of great importance to the Nyingma Sect.
Taking a panoramic view of the 700 Buddhist monasteries of the Nyingma Sect, it is not difficult to conclude that the Nyingma Sect has played a crucial role in the field of Tibetan Buddhism. It has a great influence among the mass adherents of Tibetan Buddhism in the Tibetan areas, especially among the common people, which is second only to the Gelug Sect.
2) The Kardam Sect
The Kardam Sect was an earlier sect formed in Tibetan Buddhism. Here in Tibetan "Kar ¡°means¡± Buddhism and "dams" means "teach". The word "Kardam" therefore referred to using Buddhist scriptures to guide ordinary people's behavior. As for its meaning, Master Tukan Qoigyinyima explained in his book Different Sects and Doctrines of Tibetan Buddhism: The sect incorporated teachings of Buddha Tathagata into that of Master Artisa, who advocated gradual practice as the route to the Great Perfection, hence the sect's name. Generally speaking, the Kardam Sect of Tibetan Buddhism was initiated by Master Artisa, devel- oped by Zongtonpa, the favorite disciple of Atisa, and promoted by their successors. In the 15th century, with the rise of the Gelug Sect, the Kardam Sect was annexed and in the end disappeared as an independent entity.
Master Atisa, also known as Precious Lord, took the ordination name Dipamkara Srijhana. In 1042, he left Vikramashila Monastery of India for the western region of Tibet at the invitation of Lha Lama Yeshe O, King of the Guge Kingdom. In the following three years, Master Artisa devoted himself to spreading Buddhism in the Ngari area and gained great respect from local believers. At that time, admiring Master Artisa's reputation, many Buddhist disciples and followers from the central areas of Tibet were attracted to his side and strove to invite him to their home area to spread Buddhism. Therefore, against his wishes, as he had planned to return to Vikramashila Monastery, Master Artisa took up the invitation of Zongtonpa, and reached the central areas of Tibet after spending three years in the Ngari area. From then on, Zongtonpa followed Master Artisa and became a close disciple. Master Artisa stayed in many Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, such as Samye Monastery, Nyetang Monastery and so on. He preached Buddhist doc- trines and dealt with problems in a broad and effective way wherever he went. He also spared no pains to hold enshrining ceremony for quite a number of monasteries, Buddhist pagodas and Buddhism Statues, as well as accepting many disciples; he held initiation ceremonies for them and imparted all kinds of ways to study Buddhist sutras. In 1054, at the age of 73, Master Artisa hadn't returned India as his wished and died at the Nyetang Monastery, several kilometers southwest of Lhasa. He had traveled for about 13 yeare in Tibetan areas and spread Buddhism wherever he went, playing an important role in promoting and flourishing Buddhism in the western and central areas.
Master Artisa translated and wrote many scriptures on open and secret schools of Tibetan Buddhism while he stayed in Tibet. The most important work is The Lamp that Shows the Path to Enlightenment, which is a classic that lays down a foundation for the teachings of the Kardam Sect. As a canon merged with Tantras (scriptures of the secret school of Ti- betan Buddhism) and sutras (scriptures of the open school of Tibetan Buddhism) of the Mahayana theory, it elaborated that-there should be no conflicts between them; instead, they should always compromise. At the same time, one should practice Buddhism step by step. The works provided a theo- retical foundation for Master Tsongkapa's two famous classics, The Gradual Way to Bodhisattva and The Gradual Way to Tantricism.
Another important achievement of Master Artisa is that he trained and cultivated four famous disciples, namely Nyachocechengyiwa, Kutunzunziyongdrong, Erlebeixirab, Zongtunbaviqoinnei. Among of them, Zongtonpa, his favorite disciple, absorbed all the teachings of the open and secret schools of Tibtetan Buddhism, and set up a theoretical system for the teachings of the Kardam Sect.
Zongtonpa was born into a wealthy family of Duilhung. He was well educated in his childhood and started to learn Buddhism as he grew up. In 1045, he left for Ngari to invite Master Artisa to central Tibet to promote the spread of Buddhism, and from then on he followed the Master until he died at Nyetang Monastery. Zongtonpa fully deserved to be the most senior among many disciples of Master Artisa. In 1055, he presided over the Grand Summons Ceremony commemorating the first anniversary of Artisa's parinirvana in Nyetang, and built a monastery called Nyetang. In 1057, with the support of the feudal head of the Damxung area in northern Tibet, Zongtonpa established a monastery at Ryezhen, giving its name to the Ryezhen Monastery. With this as its fundamental religious site, the Kardam Sect of Tibetan Buddhism gradually formed.
After the death of Zongtonpa, the post of Chief Abbot of Ryezhen Monastery was occupied by Namjor Qinbo, another disciple of Master Artisa, who was succeeded by Kongbawa, also a disciple of the great master. After that, the Chief Abbot's post of Ryezhen Monastery was occupied in succession by the disciples of Zongtonpa. There are three famous figures, namely Bodorwa Reqinsdi, Gyinewa Cechenba and Puqoinwa Shanno Gyaincain. They and their successors built many monasteries. Bodorwa built Bodor Monastery; Chaqoikarba, an eminent monk of the Kardam Sect, and a disciple of Bodorwa, established Qoikar Monastery at Mozhu near Lhasa; in 1164, Sei Gyibopa constructed a new mOnas tery near Qoikar Monastery, known as Gyibo Monastery; Tundain built Nyatang Monastery in 1153, in 1073, Erleibixirab, one of the disciples of Master Artisa, constructed a monastery, at first known as the Nyeto Monastery but later called Sampo Monastery. In addition, there are many other monasteries of the Kardam Sect such as Gyiayu, Lo, Ganggang and Renqingang.
Among many monasteries of the Kardam Sect, except Ryezhen Monastery, there are still two influential monasteries today, namely the Sampo and Nyatang monasteries. Sampo Monastery, located south of Lhasa and east of Nyetang, is famous for advocating Buddhist debate and Hetuvidya (Buddhist Logic), which held an important position in the history of Tibetan Buddhism. Nyetang Monastery is the earliest place to edit and revise Gangyur and Dangyur of the Tripitaka in Tibetan, also called the Nyetang edition, for which the Nyetang Monastery is famous. In 1409, Master Tsongkapa established the Gelug Sect, on the basis of the doctrines and rituals of the Kardam Sect. Gradually, many monasteries and monks of the Kardam Sect were forced to convert to the Gelug Sect, which earned it another name as the new Kardam Sect. Thereupon, the Kardam Sect vanished as an independent sect in Tibetan areas.
3) The Sagya Sect The Sagya Sect is one of important of Tibetan Buddhism.
Its founder is known as Kun Gongqoi Gyibo, decedent of the Noble Kuns in the Tubo Kingdom. This was an eminent family with long succession following the tradition of the Nyingma Sect, and making significant contribution to the formation and development of Tibetan Buddhism. The Sagya Sect takes pride in the fact that Kun Lhuyi Wangbosung, son of Kun Banpoche (Prime Minister of Tsampos Trisong Detsan of the Tubo Kingdom), was the first monk of the Kuns and one of the earliest seven monks of Tubo, as well as the first batch of monks in the history of Tibetan Buddhism.
Both Kun Gongqoi Gyibo's father Sakyialhozui and his elder brother Kun Nor Xirab Cechen were pious followers of the Nyingma Sect. Kun Nor Xirab Cechen, elder brother of Kung Gongqoi Gyibo, was famous for his immense knowledge, strict observance of the Buddhist commandments, and good command of Tantric practices. He was the patriarch of the Kuns at that time, also the last master of the Kuns worshiping the Nyingma Sect. According to historical records of Tibetan Buddhism, the Kuns were divided into two periods from Kun Nor Xirab Cechen, under whom they followed the Nyingma Sect and following him they were believers in the Sagya Sect. Kun Gongqoi Gyibo followed his father and elder brother in childhood to learn the doctrines handed down from the Kuns, which belonged to the Nyingma Sect. When he grew up, however, Kun Gongqoi Gyibo began to be interested in the new Tantricism prevailing at that time in Tibetan areas. One day, he went to participate in a large-scale ceremony held in Cho, and was transported by the diverse and bustling performance, especially the magic. The magicians were attired with female characteristics, wearing goddess masks, carrying various Buddhist objects, jumping for joy and dancing gracefully. The magicians showed people a varied and col- orful performance in a unique way. When Gongqoi Gyibo returned home, he told his elder brother what he had seen and asked how and why such performance could appear. His elder brother explained to him in detail. With the decline of the old Tantricism, it was a chaotic stage in the development of Buddhism. So, it was hard to become a celebrated Buddhist scholar or esoteric master of old Tantricism. As a result, the old Buddhist canons and objects they once owned, and the Three Gems of Buddhism they worshiped, should be discarded. He suggested a new Tantricism and new Buddhist system should be set up. However, when they sought to eliminate the old Tantricism, the Horse Head king and Diamond king could not be subdued owing to their unpredictable and peerless magic. Hence, the sacred posi- tion of the two guardian deities was maintained when the Sagya Sect reconstructed the spiritual system and reselected the spiritual deities. Until today, the two guardian deities handed down from old Tantricism are enshrined by the Sagya Sect, together with alms-giving religious rituals to the sister deities of sun and moon. Followers of the Sagya Sect would throw a kind of food called Donna to what were also known as the white guardian deities in a particular, seasonal religious ritual.
Kun Gongqoi Gyibo's elder brother advised him to approach Chomi Sakyayeshi, the great Buddhist master in T-thang at that time, and learn neo-Tantricism that was emerging in the second period of the dissemination of Tibetan Buddhism. Later, Kun Gongqoi Gyibo realized his brother's wish and created a new school for the family, that was the Sagya Sect.
Sakyayeshi, one of great translators on neo-Tantricism in the middle stages of the second period of the dissemina- tion of Tibetan Buddhism, also known as Translator Chomi in history books, translated many significant works of neoTantricism and played an important role in their establish- ment in Tibetan Buddhism. He enjoyed an unparalleled high position especially in the history of the Sagya Sect, for he created the way to the Great Perfection, core teachings to which the Sagya Sect paid greatest attention. In a sense, the history of the Sagya is that of the development of the ways to the Great Perfection. So, apart from Master Translator Chomi, it is difficult to learn the history of the Sagya Sect, especially its teaching lineage.
Not only was Master Chomi a great translator held in high esteem throughout Tibetan areas, but also a famous teacher who cultivated many eminent monks. A great number of eminent monks once studied under his tutorship, including Gongqoi Gyibo (founder of the Sagya Sect), Master Marpa (forefather of the Gegyu Sect), Master Gui, (main spreader of the male lineage of Tantricism), the Eminent monk Soiboche (a crucial person in the formation of the Nyingma Sect) and so on. Among of them, Gongqoi Gyibo fully succeeded and promoted Buddhist doctrines, especially the Female Lineage Bdemchogrdorje, advocated by Master Chomi.
Following his elder brother's advice, Gongqoi Gyibo began his long trek to seek Master Chomi. He encountered a master called Qin on the way and decided to learn neo antricism. Gongqoi Gyibo asked Master Qin to confer on him the "Vajra initiation" and impart to him the key elements of neo-Tantricism. Unfortunately, Master Qin died under he finished his teaching. Gongqoi Gyibo had to leave for Nyegolhung Monastery, located in Lhadui of the Xigaze area, and asked to study under the tutorship of Master Chomi. At first, Gongqoi Gyibo learned Vajra neo-Tantricism under Master Chomi what Master Qin had left. In order to learn comprehensively the Great Treasure Scriptures, Gongqoi Gyibo sold part of his family lands, bought seventeen horses, together with a pear in the shape of forage grass, to present to Master Chomi As rewards for imparting Buddhism to him. Master Chomi lectured him on part of the Great Treasure Scriptures, giving priority to'the Three Orders Tantricism. In addition, he especially taught the ways to the Great Perfection. Therefore, Gongqoi Gyibo came to be the most excellent suc- cessor of the teachings of Master Chomi.
In 1073, at the age of forty, Gongqoi Gyibo established a monastery at the foot of Mountain Pobori, near the bank of the Chun Qu River, namely the famous Sagya Monastery. The word "Sagya" originated from Tibetan, meaning a gray-white land, for it was built on such a land considered auspicious. From there, Gongqoi Gyibo started to impart Tantricism to disciples, mainly of the Kuns, and gradually established a new theoretical system on the lineage of neo-Tantricism. Thus, a new sect of Tibetan Buddhism came into being. Since the enclosures and most buildings of the Sagya Sect were painted with red, white and black stripes, many scholars also called it the Stripe Sect and this title began to appear in all kinds of history books. Actually, it was not a proper title.
Gongqoi Gyibo served as the Chief Abbot of the Sagya Monastery and lectured on Buddhism for nearly 30 years, laying a great foundation for the formation and development of the Sagya Sect. As far as Gongqoi Gyibo is concerned, he observed the hereditary system of the Kuns and served as a layman, not an ordained monk. So, Gongqoi Gyibo married two wives; the first wife was childless but the second wife gave birth to a son, who later became patriarch of the Sagya Sect. According to historical records, from the period of GonZgoi Gyibo, the Sagya Sect set up the tradition of hereditary handing on of the position of abbot, with the control of both politics and religion. In connection with the successive history of the Sagya Sect, it is necessary to learn some historical events of the five forefathers of the sect, who had made great contributions to the development of the Sagya Sect and were held in high esteem in the history of Tibetan Buddhism. Until today, quite a number of statues and Tangka paintings of the five are worshiped at many monasteries of other sects, apart from the Sagya Sect, which fully showed the celebrated position they held.
Gonggar Nyingbo, the first forefather of the Sagya Sect, was the only son of Gongqoi Gyibo, who was by then already elderly, and his youngest wife. In childhood, he followed his father to learn Buddhism. Unfortunately, when he was ten years old, his father passed away. At that time, the post of abbot of Sagya Monastery was temporarily held by Master Bari Renqenzha, while the main task of Gonggar Nyingbo was to learn Buddhism. Following many famous masters of India and Tibet, he extensively learned Buddhist doctrines and the teachings of the sutras and Tantras of Buddhism, including "Sutra on the Ways to the Great Perfection". His main teacher was Bari Renqenzha. In addition, Gonggar Nyingbo studied Abhidharma-kasa under master Zhangde Darma Nyingbo, Madhyamika (The Middle Way) and Hetuvidya (Buddhist Logic) under Master Qoinrenqenzhaba and Tangmei Namche, Collection of Tantricism and Black Day under the Namkuwa Brothers, Bdemchogrdorje and Bright King under Gongtang Waimai Luozuo. It is worth special mention that he studied for four years under the tutorship of Master Xiangdun, concentrat- ing on learning Tantras on the Ways to the Great Perfection. In addition, the great Master Bowapo from Tianzhu came to Sagya Monastery in person to impart 72 Tantricism, espe- cially 14 profound teachings within the enclosure. So, he was respectfully called Saqin, the first forefather of the Sagya Sect, Owing to his incessant achievements, the Sagya sect developed rapidly and began to histinguish itself in Tibetan Buddhism, with great expansion of power and social influence.
Gonggar Nyingbo was able to obtain the comprehensive and profound Tantricism only imparted to a close disciple, becoming academically accomplished and turning into a celebrated Tantric master with great magic power. It is said that he could show six different Buddha's bodies, also regarded as the embodiment of the Goddess of Mercy. Gonggar Nyingbo took over the post of abbot of Sagya Monastery at the age of twenty. He advocated an approach through Sutras and Tantras, especially paying attention to imparting the ways to the Great Perfection. During the 47 years he served in the post, he made great contributions to the perfection of Dharma, increasing the sect's power. So he was respectfully called Saqin, the first forefather of the Sagya Sect. Owing to his incessant achievements, the Sagya sect developed rapidly and began to distinguish itself in Tibetan Buddhism, with great expansion of power and social influence.
Gonggar Nyingbo was a great master and at the same time he was a layman, not an ordained monk. He had four sons, successively Gonggar Ba, Soinam Chemo, Zhaba Gyaincain, and Boqen Wopo. Gonggar Ba went to India for Dharma and died aged 22 at Mogyeto; Soinam Chemo succeeded his father and became the second forefather of the Sagya Sect, followed by Zhaba Gyaincain, the third forefather of the Sagya Sect; the last son of Gonggar Nyingbo, Baiqen Wopo, unlike his elder brothers, married and fathered a family.
Soirt'am Chemo followed his father Ganggar Nyingbo to learn the doctrines of the Sagya Sect in childhood. When he grew up, he went to Tsangpo Monastery to study the Five Sutras by Maitreya and Hetuvidya (Buddhist Logic) under the guidance of Master Qiaque Bajisengge. He succeeded to the post of abbot after his father Ganggar Nyingbo died. Not long after he took over the post, Soinam Chemo handed the position to his younger brother, Zhaba Gyaincain, while he devoted himself entirely to studying Tantricism and the Sutras of Tibetan Buddhism in Tsangpo Monastery. Soinam Chemo extensively learned the Tantras and sutras, paying special attention to the practice of the esoteric sect; meanwhile, he strictly observed the commandments of Tibetan Buddhism. In addition, he was proficient in the Five Treatises of Bud- dhist Doctrine, namely Technology, Medicine, Grammar, Logic and Philosophy, making great contributions to promoting the further development of Tibetan traditional culture. Thus, Gonggar Nyingbo became a great scholar and eminent monk enjoying high prestige.
Zhaba Gyaincain, taking over the post from his elder brother, studied Dharma until he was twelve years old. It was said that he lectured on Hevajra Sutra so well at the age of eleven that the people around him were amazed. It was also said that he learned the Three Tantras through a dream, and fully grasped it. In addition, Zhanba Gyaincain was ordained as a upasaka (laymen) by Jamshengdawa Gyaincain, giving up wine and meat and strictly abiding by Buddhist disciplines. According to the historical record, Zhaba Gyaincain served as abbot of the Sagya Sect at the age of 13, and contributed to the growing expansion of Sagy Monastery. He ordered the construction of the Hall of Buddha on the roof of the Great Hall, and launched the project to write Gangyur of Tripitaka with gold ink. Zhaba Gyaincain put all the treasures and objects that disciples and followers offered as alms into use to erect statues of Buddhas, Buddha halls and pagodas, or helping poor farmers and herders. When he died after presiding over Sagya Monastery for 57 years, he had virtually no possessions, showing the high virtues of a monk who strictly observed religious commandments.
Gonggar Gyaincain, the youngest son of Ganggar Nyingbo, learnt Dharma from childhood to lay a solid foun- dation for the study of Buddhism. For instance, in childhood, he received ordination as a Upasaka (laymen) under his uncle and gained extensive Buddhist knowledge and culture. In 1204, at the age of 23, Ganggar Gyaincain went to Kashmir and studied under Master Sakya Shele. He was ordained as a Bhiksu (junior monk) under Master Sakya Shelc and learned many Buddhist scriptures such as Explanation of Logic by Dharmakirt and Seven Logics including Ornament and Clear Realization, as well as traditional Indian and Tibetan culture such as Technology, Medicine, Grammar, Rhetoric, Words and Expressions, Syntax, Drama, Astrology and so on. As the result, in the second period of dissemination of Tibetan Buddhism, Gonggar Gyaincain was a learned scholar with good command of the Ten Treatises Buddhist Doctrine. Tibetologists divide Ten Treatises of Buddhist Doctrine into Five Treatises of Buddhist Doctrine and Five Minor Treatises of Buddhist Doctrines. The former includes Logic, Medicine, Technology, Grammar, Philosophy (including five sutras and four Tantras, the former referring to Perfection of Wisdom, the Middle Way, Monastic Discipline, Metaphysics, Logic, while the latter comprising Action Tantra, Performance Tantra, Yoga Tantra, Highest Yoga Tantra), while the latter includes Rhetoric, Words and Expressions, Syntax, Drama and Astrology. At that time, scholars proficient in the Ten Treatises of Tibetan Doctrine were respectively called Pundit, and thus Gonggar Gyaincain gained the title of Sagya Pundit, the first scholar wining such prestige throughout the Tibetan areas.
Hearing of Gonggar Gyaincain's reputation after he won the title of Sagya Pundit, Choche Garwa, together with other five Taoist scholars from south India came to Tibet and asked for a debate with him. It was held at a market near the Shengwadi Sampo Monastery of Mangyu Gyizong and lasted 13 days. Ending in failure for the Indians, who had to cut their hair and become monks. From then on, the fame of Sagya Pundit became wider known in the Tibetan areas. As a great scholar, Sagya Pundit left rich Buddhist works and cultural commentaries, such as Doctrine of Three Monastic Disciplines, Theory on Tibetan Logic, Introduction to Sage and Philosophy, Comments on Explanation to Instruments, Theory on Rhetoric, Theory on Grammar and Composition, Mottoes of the Sagya Sect and so on. Among of them, Docti"ine of Three Monastic Disciplines was an important work in which he commented on the correctness or otherwise of various views Buddhists held at that timeand elaborated his understanding and opinions of Buddhism. The book has always been a compulsory one for monks of the Sagya Sect. Theory on Tibetan Logic played a crucial role in Tibetan Buddhism, and was written on the basis of Collection of Logic by Chena and Explanation of Logic by Dharmakirt and added Sagya Pundit's understanding and ideological system to the existing thought. In addition, Mot- toes of the Sagya Sect is a collection of oft-quoted mottoe putting more emphasis on social ethics and ways of human communications, which is quite popular with Tibetan people.
Not only was Sagya Pundit a learned Buddhist monk, but also a crucial political person who contributed much to the official incorporation of Tibet into China. Because of his high esteem in Tibetan areas, he was chosen by the ruler of the Yuan Dynasty to be a key person between the two sides. In 1264, at the invitation of Godan Khan of the fuan Dynasty, Sagya Pundit reached Lanzhou and discussed with him the terms of Tibet's submission to Mongolia, establishing political administration of the Mongol royal court over Tibetan local forces. Sagya Pundit wrote to various local forces at Lanzhou, persuading them to accept the terms of submission. In the end, he accomplished the tasks assigned by the Yuan ruler, but he failed to return the Sagya Monastery, and died at Lanzhou at the age of 72. Sagya Pundit devoted himself to the cause of unifying his country and various nationalities. Due to his great efforts, Tibet submitted to the central administration of the Yuan Dynasty without war.
The fifth forefather of the Sagya Sect is Pagba. He was the son of Soinam Gyaincain, younger brother of Sagya Pandit. According to Song of the Cuckoo, Pagba was so quick in mind and eager to learn from childhood that he could lecture on Buddhist scriptures the age of eight. Ben- efiting a great deal from his uncle, Sagya Pundit, Pagba later became a celebrated political person as well as a high monk proficient in Buddhist knowledge. Pagba followed his uncle to Lanzhou for political negotiations with the Mongolian Khan when about ten years old, when he began to be exposed to a political environment, thus laying a foundation for his later political career. When he was 17, Pagba was appointed successor of the Sagya Sect by Sagya Pundit who was close to death. Pagba took over the post after his uncle died and served as abbot of Sagya Monastery and patriarch of the Sagya Sect. Pagba turned out to be an eminent person who had both religious rights in charge of Buddhist affairs of the Sagya Sect and political rights repre- senting Tibetan local forces. Therefore, he played an important role both towards local interests in Tibet and the central government of the Yuan Dynasty. In 1253, upon the imperial edict issued by Kublai, Pagba visited him. In order to show the respect of the Yuan government, Kublai and his wives, together with their children received Pagba with full ceremony, showing themselves to be ordinary people paying homage to a great master. Altogether 25 people received Abhiseka initiation under Master Pagba, while they effered many treasures and materials in return. In 1255, Pagba went back to Tibet and reached Nyatang to pay homage to Natang ICangin Zhaba Sanggar, under whom he was ordained as a Bhiksu, the supreme ceremony in the life of a monk. At that time, there were frequent debates between Buddhism and Taoism thanks to Mongolian rulers' equal treatment of various religions. In 1258, In order to decide which was better, a grand debate between Buddhism and Taoism was held at the palace of Dadu (capital of the Yuan Dynasty). Menge Khan, elder' brother of Kublai, ordered the latter to be responsible for the' debate. Finally the Taoist side admitted failure, and 17 Taoists cut their hair to become monks, while some Taoist mon- asteries became Buddhist ones. When Kublai ascended to the throne as the Khan in 1260, he nominated Pagba as "State Tutor", bestowing on him a jade seal. Four years later, in 1264, Kublai Khan moved his capital to Dadu (present-day Beijing), and set up a Zhongzhi (general) Council in the central government to handle religious affairs throughout the country and administrative affairs of local Tibetan areas. Pagba was put in charge of the council in the capacity of "State Tutor". One year later, when Pagba went back to Tibet, he had the Sagya Monastery repaired and refurbished, including building new statues of Buddha, a pagoda, and writing in gold ink the Dangyur section of the Tripitaka. He followed from one master to another, studying Buddhist logic, Sutric theory, Tantric practices, as well as five treatises of Buddhist doctrine, namely traditional Tibetan culture. Many learned and accomplished masters, such as Kashmir Pundit Shidatagardabazha, Translator Lowo Xirab Reqen, Kanqenqingnamkazha from the place of Nyatang, gave him directions for his study. This time, Pagba stayed in Tibet for over three years, during which time he managed to create a set of new Mongolian characters following the order of Khan Kublai. The 41 new Mongolian characters with Mongolian pronunciation were invented according to the 30-character Tibetan alphabet. It was later called "the character of Pagba". When Pundit Pagba presented the new Mongolian characters to Kublai Khan, the king was so satisfied that he issued an imperial edict in 1268 that all editions and official documents should be written in the newly created characters, with an aim to promoting it around the country. In 1270, Pundit Pagba offered the second Vajra initiation to Kublai Khan. Due to these various actions, he was regarded highly by the Yuan ruler. As a reward for his achievements, Khan Kublai entitled Pundit Pagba as Imperial Tutor and bestowed on him jade seals accordingly. In 1276, Pagba once again reached Sagya Monastery from Dadu, this time escorted by Crown Prince Zhenjin in person. During their journey, Pun- dit Pagba wrote especially for and imparted to Crown Prince Doctrines on What I Know, which has a Chinese edition and was compiled into the Tripitaka. In 1277, at Chomirenmo near Nyatang Monastery, Pundit Pagba held a grand Dharma Gathering, also called the Chomi Gathering, in which 70, 000 Buddhist monks and followers participated. Three years later, he passed away at the early age of 46 in the Lhazhang Lhakang of Sagya Monastery. After his death, Khan Kublai conferred him respectful titles with 38 words that praised his achievements and contributions. In 1320, Emperor Renzong of the Yuan Dynasty issued an edict that temples of Imperial Tutor Pagba should be built throughout the coun- try to commemorate this outstanding figure forever. During the time that Pagba served as State Tutor and Imperial Tutor, he made great contributions not only to the all-around development of the Tibetan areas in the terms of politics, culture and economy, but also promoting stability and de- velopment of the Yuan Dynasty as well as national unity and cultural exchanges among all the nationalities around the country. Mr. Wang Sen once stated: It seemed that Pundit Pagba, by following the internal policy of his uncle Sapan Gonggar Gyaincain, not only further consolidated the rela- tionship of the Tibet area and the central government of the motherland, but also boosted the economic and cultural exchanges between the Han and Tibetans, as well as between the Mongolian and the Tibetan. Thereafter, it indirectly forged stronger ties among all nationalities of our country, although it was only a combination of the rulers of the Mongolian and the Tibetan. "The title of Imperial Tutor conferred by the central government of the Yuan Dynasty still continued after the death of Pagba, and the post wag occupied by eminent monks of the Sagya Sect of Tibetan Buddhism. For instance, Renqin Gyaincain took the post after Pagba, then Dharma Palaregesita, the niece of Pagba, then Yeshi Renqin, and so on. Altogether over a dozen eminent monks served as Imperial Tutor until the end of the Yuan Dynasty.
Through the introduction of the five forefathers of the Sagya Sect, we can have a general knowledge of historical process of the development of the Sagya Sect in Tibetan areas. According to Tibetan historical records, the first three forefathers of the Sagya Sect were called the three white forefa- thers for the white ordinary clothes they wore, representing a layman identity, while the last two forefathers were known as two red forefathers, from the red robes they wore, symbolizing that they were formally Buddhist monks. There were also many grand monks who continued to play a great role in the development of Buddhism of the Sagya Sect following the five forefathers. The Four Lhazhang of the Sagya Sect were among them namely Xitog Lhazhang, Lhakang Lhazhang, Renqingang Lhazhang, and Diqoi Lhazhang. These had been four pillars during the period when the Sagya Sect was enjoying vigorous growth, tracing their origins tothe period of Master Gonggar Lobzui Gyaincain, the Imperial Tutor of China's Yuan Dynasty, whose many half-brothers presided over each Lhazhang respectively.
The Xitog Lhazhang was established when Namka Raobi Gyaincain served as abbot of the Sagya Sect. Later, when Gonggar Gyaincain, the son of Mamka Raobi Gyaincain, succeeded to his father's position, he moved Xitog Lhazhang from Sagya to Qoimi. From then on, the abbot of Xitog Lhazhang was succeeded in generations by his male offspring. The last abbot was Gonggar Zhaxi Gyaincain, who was entitled State Tutor by China's Ming Dynasty. Because he had no son when he passed away, he converted the Xitog Lhazhang to the Renqengang Lhazhang. So, the Xitog Lhazhang disappeared as an independent entity.
The first abbot of the Lhakang Lhazhang was Gonggar Gyaincain Zangpo Sangpo, followed by his son, Qoigyi Gyaincain. Members of the family continued to occupy the position of abbot until its decline in the 16th century. Renqengang Lhazhang traced its first abbot to Jamyang Dunye Gyaincain, followed in succession by Dawa " Gyaincain, Jamyang Qenbo, Xeirab Gyaincain and so on. After the four generations of the Renqengang Lhazhang, some time in the 15th century, it was suspended and then disappeared.
The Diqoi Lhazhang is the direct line of descent from the Sagya Sect, which is the only one still existing. The Diqoi traced its first abbot to Gonggar Lebei Joinnei Gyanicainpo Sangbo, who served as the central government official in charge of enacting law in the Tibetan areas in the Yuan Dynasty. The abbot of the Diqoi Lhazhang was succeeded in a hereditary system from father to son. The central governments of the Yuan and Ming Dynasties paid great attention to the abbot of the Diqoi Lhazhang. For instance, Zhaba Gyaincain, the son of Gonggar Lebei Joinnei Gyaincainpo Sangbo, who was the first abbot of the Diqoi Lhazhang, was called King, while the grandson of Zhaba Gyaincain, Manke Lebe Gyaincain, was conferred the title of Assistance Religious King by Emperor Yongle of the Ming Dynasty. As the Diqoi Lhazhang is the only one with a continuous lineage until today, the abbot of the Sagya Sect was the abbot of the Diqoi Lhazhang.
In the 13th century, Tibet was officially incorporated into China. As a influential religious force at that time, the Sagya Sect contributed much to the unification of China and vari- ous nationalities. Henceforth, under great support of the Yuan Dynasty in both politics and economy, the Sagya Sect pros- pered all in Tibetan areas, becoming one of the most impor- tant sects of Tibetan Buddhism. Furthermore, for the first time, high monks from the Sagya Sect set up local forces merging politics and religion in Tibet, owing to the support and honorable titles from the central Yuan government.
Today, there are also quite a number of Sagya monaster- ies and disciples in Tibetan areas. Latest statistics show that altogether there are 141 Sagya monasteries in Tibetan areas, with 94 located in Tibet Autonomous Region, where its main influence remains. The Sagya Monastery, situated in Sagya County, Xigaze, is the ancestral monastery of the sect.
Historically, the Sagya Monastery comprises the Southern and Northern monasteries, but only the Southern Monastery remains today. In 1288, Benqen Sagya Sangbo built the Southern Sagya Monastery. Covering an area of 147,000 square meters, its surrounding wall is about five meters high, two meters thick, with watchtowers on each corner. The monastery boasts rich and precious religious relics and Buddhist classics, and is also known as the second Dunhuang. There are 90 monks residing in the monastery, with 11 old monks and five who have attained a degree of Rabgyamba. The institute responsible for the Sagya Sect is called the monastery management committee, com- posed of seven people, namely one honorary director, three deputy directors, and three committee members. It is divided into six departments, covering education, cultural relics, finance, maintenance, hygiene and reception.
With regard to teachings and religious rituals, the Sagya Monastery pays attention to both open and esoteric scriptures. One should first study theories of the open school, with two different grades of junior and senior class. The junior class, lasting six years, is a preparatory class of the Open School, during which monks study from initial classes of Tibetan Grammar, Rhetoric, Drama, Calendars and so on. In the end, they would enter the last stage to study comprehensive Buddhist scriptures, when they were required to recite six Buddhist scriptures. At present, the monastery houses 47 resident monks. The senior class houses 15 resident monks now and its semester is also six years. They mainly studied 18 scriptures of the Sagya Sect, which are all written by eminent monks from Indian, apart from one works written by Sagya Pundit, Treasure Collection of Logic. Scholars of the Sagya Sect are always pride of the scriptures they learned, embracing that what they learned is orthodox Buddhist theory. They are qualified to participate in an examination called Rabgyamba Degree after they have finished study of the 18 Buddhist scriptures.
One may enter the esoteric school after completing the open school. He should study from theory of Tantras (scriptures of the secret school) before beginning to practice Tantricism. Then, he can receive the initiation ceremony, also called "Vessel consecration". Usually, the master pours water from a pot or vase onto the head of the disciple, and then offers him wine from a bowl made of a skull to warn him to clear his mind of all evil thoughts. After this ceremony, the monk can learn Tantricism from the master and step into a period of practicing meditation. They mainly practice profound meditation of Tantricism, based on "the gradual way to birth and death" and "the gradual way to the Great Perfection".
The most important religious ceremonies held in Sagya Monastery were the Ceremony of Hevajra, Worshiping Ceremony and Ceremony of Vajrapani. The Ceremony of Hevajra was held from the 8th to the 14th day of the ninth month of the Tibetan calendar. In the ceremony, the monastery held religious rituals such as reciting Buddhist scriptures, worshiping rituals, and practicing Hevajra Tantras. The worshipping ceremony, which was held from the 12th day of the eleventh month to the first day of the twelfth month of the Tibetan calendar, was aceremony to worship spirits and deities, demons and ghosts by presenting offerings made from colorful ribbons an8 Tsamba (roasted highland qingke barley flour) accompanied by scripture-reciting and Dharma-dancing performed by Buddhist monks. With regard to the Ceremony of Vajrapani, it was held from the 8th day to the 18th day of the seventh month of Tibetan calendar. In the ceremony, Dharma-dancing was performed to w6r- ship Vajrapani, the principal deities of Tibetan Buddhism.
In a word, the Sagya Monastery, not only is the ancestral monastery of the Sagya Sect, which enjoys high prestige among followers of the Sagya Sect, but is also a monastery of Tibetan Buddhism full of religious and cultural atmosphere famous at home and abroad.
In addition, there has another famous monastery of the Sagya Sect, the Gonggar Qoidui Monastery, which was situ- ated in Gonggar County of the Sharman area of the Tibetan Autonomous Region. It was built in 1464 by Gudain Gonggar Namgyi, and it became an important place for the Sagya Sect to spread its doctrines of Tantricism, putting emphasis on Tantras of the Gonggar branch. It was destroyed during he "Culture Revolution", and in 1985 the central govern- ent of People's Republic of China allocated a special fund of over 80,000 Yuan to have it repaired and renovated. Now, t has basically resumed its former look. At present, there re 14 resident monks, four old monks and the remainder rather young. The Gonggar Qoidui Monastery has established omplete religious rituals and activities, such as reciting uddhist scriptures, a ritual that all Buddhist monks of the monastery take part in. This is held in the Great Sutra Hall hvery morning and evening. Then, there is the Ceremony of Hevajra, held from the 9th to the 19th day of the first month in the Tibetan Calendar, and the ceremony held on the 14th day of the forth month commemorating Sapan's Parinirvana.
Besides the Tibetan Autonomous Region, there are also a number of Buddhist Monasteries of the Sagya Sect in Yushu and Ganzi Tibetan prefectures respectively in Qinghai and Sichuanprovinces. Gyigu Monastery of the Yushu Tibetan Prefecture played an important role in the dissemination and development of the Sagya Sect in the area. In addition, in Yushu Tibetan Prefecture, there are also many monasteries of the Sagya Sect, such as the Reqenlun, Dongcong, and Charub monasteries in Yushu Country, Tudain and Saida monasteries in Chendo County, as well as Zongda Monastery in Qoi Village of Namchan County.
4) The Kargyu Sect
The Kargyu Sect, one of four most important sects of Tibetan Buddhism, has exerted great influence on it in the Tibetan areas. In Tibetan, "kar" means "statement of Buddha" and "gyu" means "carry forward", hence the name of "kargyu" means "handing Dharma down orally". The sect got its name as it stressed the practice of Tantricism, which was usually passed on orally from teacher to disciple. The Kargyu Sect is also known as the White Sect for the whitestripped robes that its monks always wore. This is seemingly inappropriate, just as History and Doctrines ofDifferentBuddhist Sects states: "Later, some historical works from Bhutan called it'White Sect Lineage', which came from the tradition that Master Marpa, Master Milarapa and Master Noropa, the three forefathers of the Kargyu Sect, usually wore white robes. This style hence was handed down from generation to generation, becoming the sect's fashion. But the name of the Kargyu Sect, widely known among Tibetans, seemed to be more appropriate than that of the White Sect, because the former properly reflects its features of oral transmission of its teachings." As the book pointed out, in Tibetan "Kargyu" means "carry down orally", and it also indicates the importance of transmission of its knowledge from teacher to student, so the word "kargyu" is an apprppriate one to reflect its characteristics.
The Kargyu Sect was formed "in the second period of dissemination of Tibetan Buddhism", during which it was founded by Translator and Master Marpa, who was succeeded by the Great Yogi Milarapa and Master Tabo Lhagyi. It was not until the time of Master Tabo Lhagyi that the Kargyu Sect was formally established and attained greatness, however. As is well known, among various sects of Tibetan Buddhism, the Kargyu Sect has the most numerous and jumbled branches. In terms of teaching lineage, despite its numerous and jumbled branches, there is no discernible difference on doctrines and disciplines advocated by each branch, as all can trace their origins to the lineage of Translator and Master Marpa and Master Milarapa. Generally speaking, the sect falls into two lineage, one is called the Tabo Kargyu, founded by Translator Marpa and carried on by Master Milarapa; while the other is known as Shangpa Kargyu, created by Qoinbo Namjor. Later, the Shangpa Kargyu gradually declined and disappeared, while the Tabo Kargyu developed and flourished, developing Four Large Branches and Eight Minor Branches, as well as many other subbranches.
The Shangpa Kargyu was founded by Mas- ter Qoinbo Namjor, who was born in 1085. At the age of ten, he began to study Tibetan and Sanskrit. Three years later, he started to learn the Bon religion under a great master of the Bon religion, and then changed to study "the Great Perfection" of the Nyingma Sect. When he attained certain language ability and religious knowledge, Qoinbo Namjor went to Nepal to study Sanskrit and Tantricism, taking a quantity of gold with him. Later, he traveled to India, where he received teaching from many scholars and yogis, including Master Milepa, and mastered the Vajrayana teachings popular in India at that time. When he returned to Tibet, he received monastic ordination under Master Namri Tangba, the eminent monk of the Kardam Sect of Tibetan Buddhism. Thereafter, Master Qoinbo Namjor began to build Buddhist monasteries at Phengyul, north of Lhasa, and then traveled to Shang in the Xigaze area, where he spread the Vajrayana teachings he had mastered and built many Buddhist monasteries in three years. Consequently, Shang became the foun- dation and center where Master Qoinbo Namjor spread his teachings and taught disciples. What's more, his influence quickly expanded around the area. The lineage he founded came to be known as the Shangpa Kargyu. It was said Master Qoinbo Namjor traveled to India to study Tantricism seven times, which indicated he gained his knowledge directly from Indian masters rather than from the lineage of Translator Marpa. So, the disciples and followers of the Shangpa Kargyu maintained an independent lineage, even though it shared similar doctrines and rituals with the Tabo Kargyu handed down from Masters Marpa, Milarapa and Tabo Lhagyi. Anyway, the Shangpa Kargyu, compared with the Tabo Kargyu, the orthodox lineage of the Kargyu Sect, is still one of two important sects among the numerous and jumbled sects of the Kargyu Sect of Tibetan Buddhism.
Here it is worth mentioning that Master Tongdong Gyibo, who was famous for building chain bridges in Tibet in the 15th century, was still regarded as being an eminent monk of the Shangpa Kargyu. It was said that he had built altogether over 100 chain bridges in the region, collecting money mainly by organizing people to perform Tibetan opera. Hence, he enjoyed high prestige among Tibetan people and he was worshiped in forms of statues and Tangka in many Buddhist monasteries. What's more, Many Tibetan historical works agree that many eminent Buddhist monks, including Master Tsongkapa, founder of the Gelug Sect, and his close disciple, also regarded as the first Panchan Gandain Zhuba, once studied from great scholars and translators of the Shangpa Kargyu. Therefore, the Shangpa Kargyu played an important role in the history of Tibetan Buddhism. However, from the 15th to the 16th century, it gradually declined and eventually disappeared.
While the Tabo Kargyu was the only one that not only carried on the teachings of the Kargyu Sect but has also survived until today, it was also considered as the orthodox part of the Kargyu Sect. Therefore, to some degree, the establishment of the Tabo Kargyu marked that the Kargyu Sect had formally come into being.
Master Tabo Lhagyi was the founder of the Tabo Kargyu, which took his title. "Tabo" was a place in the south of the Tibet Autonomous Region, where Master Tabo Lhagyi had made great achievements in his religious cause; "Lhagyi" was a respectful title for a doctor, as Master Tabo Lhagyi started to practice medicine in his youth and gained a certain local reputation. Local people were willing to call him Tabo Lhagyi and this address spread and became his title. Master Tabo Lhagyi had many addresses, such as Mater Niwa Gonggar, his born name, but was also known as Master Soinam Renqen as well as Master Gangpo Par, from the Gangpo Monastery where in his later age he used to reside and spread his teachings.
At the age of 26, he was formally ordained as a Buddhist monk. At first, he studied under Kampus Nordain and other eminent monks from Maryu Bdemchogradorje Tantricism and Vinaya (Buddhist Monastic Disciplines); then, he went to Phengyur, where he studied under Master Gyiayuwa, from whom he systematically studied the teachings handed down from Master Artisa, namely the teachings of the Kardam Sect. At that time, he achieved much in the theory of sutras and Tantras. At the same time, as he felt the importance of meditation, he built a small room near Sarka Monastery to practice meditation under the patronage of his parents. It was said that Master Tabo Lhagyi could maintain his meditation for 13 days unbroken, so as to prevent and destroy any feelings of cupidity and vexation. When he practiced, he slept little, and even after he fell asleep, he could capture the bright light of the Bodhisattva of ten states mentioned in the Golden Bright Sutra. He also ate nothing for five days while meditating. Through this hard way of practice, he perceived the essence of Tantricism and succeeded in attaining the great pleasure stage of Tantricism. It was not until he was 32 years old that Tabo Lhagyi heard of Master Milarapa. Then, he went tolhe western regions of the Tibet Autonomous Regions to seek him. On his way, he visited several formal masters of the Kardam Sect, who admonished him not to throw away its teachings. After a hard trek, Tabo Lhagyi finally stood before Master Milarapa, the latter immediately perceived his marvelous ability and imparted to him all the secret teachings he owned. Master Milarapa offered Vajra initiation to Tabo Lhagyi, who practiced according to the teachings of his teacher and finally attained success. After this, he received Yoga of the Physic heat, one of six practices of Naropa. All in all, it took `fabo Lhagyi only 13 month to grasp and digest all the profound Tantricism that Master Milarapa imparted.
Thereafter, in accordance to what Master Milarapa advised and arranged, Tabo Lhagyi went back to the Lhasa area to further the practice of meditation, and three years later, he withdrew from the people and dwelled in secluded places among deep mountains and great gorges. From then on, he began to hold strong belief in the teachings of Master Milarapa, and set about the sacred ways of creating the Tabo Kargyu School of the Kargyu Sect. In 1121, at Talha Gangpo, on the north bank of the Yarlung Zangbo River in today's Tabo area, the master built a monastery (Gangpo Monastery). This became the base from which Master Tabo Lhagyi set out to impart the teachings he had grasped and perceived, cultivating a large number of disciples. His famous work Gradual Ways to Deliverance, written on the basis of Gradual Ways to Enlightenment of the Kardam Sect and Great Scale Teachings by Milarapa, was one of the compulsory courses of Tabo Kargyu. So, it is reasonable that many scholars of later ages held that the Tabo Kargyu merged the teachings of the Kardam into Kargyu sects, one of its characteristics.
Master Tabo Lhagyi presided over the religious affairs of the Gangpo Monastery for over 30 years, until, in 1150, he resigned his position in favor of his niece, Gongba Cechen Nyingbo, who was also the main successor of the Tabo Kargyu. Thereafter, the Abbot of the Gangpo Monastery was always one of descendents of Master Tabo Lhagyi, whose family continued to live and reside there. It is known that after the demise of Gongba Cechen Nyingbo, the Abbot of the Gangpo Monastery succeeded according to the system of Reincarnation of the Living Buddha, so the Tabo Kargyu was regarded as one of several sects taking the lead in devel- oping this system in the Tibetan areas. Gangpo was famous for Master Tabo Lhagyi, but in the end it failed to form a large-scale monastery. However, the greatest contribution he made was that he cultivated four close disciples who then built monasteries and spread Buddhism in the Lhasa and Xigaze areas. Thus, there came into being four compara- tively independent branches of the Tabo Kargyu namely, the Karma, Phachu, Bharong and Chaipa Branches ¨C that marked that the Tabo Kargyu, or the Kargyu Sect in a widersense, beginning to enter its prime period of flourishing.
- The Karma Branch of the Tabo Kargyu
The Karma Branch is the most influential sect of the Kargyu Sect of Tibetan Buddhism, and it was also the first sect to adopt the Reincarnation System of Living Buddha. What's more, the Karma Branch established in succession several reincarnation systems of Living Buddha, among of which the Black Cap lineage and the Red Cap lineage were the most famous. Thereafter, the Karma Branch was of great importance in Tibetan Buddhism.
It was founded by Master Dustin Qenba, one of four famous disciples of Master Tabo Lhagyi. He was born at Dorkangzhexuegang Gyirewa, and his family was of the clan of Tadong Garpo. His father, Gongba Dorjegongbo, was a' Tantric yogi. At the age of eleven, Dustin Qenba followed his father to learn Buddhist prayers and simple practices of Tantricism. Five years later, he was ordained as a Buddhist monk and was given the ordination name Qoigyi Zhaba by Kampus Cholha Chesengezha of Qoigo Monastery. At the age of 19, he left for the Lhasa area to study Buddhism. At first, he systematically studied under Master Duilhung Gyiamawa and Master Kaba Qoigyisengge Five Sutras by Maitreya, The Middle Way, Buddhist Logic and other basic Buddhist theories, then he went to Master Shiareba and other eminent monks, from whom he studied Gradual Ways to Enlightenment and other teachings of the Kardam Sect. He also received ordination from Kampus Meiduseng, who taught him Buddhist monastic disciplines. Dusun Qenba moved from one master to another, and in this way he systematically studied comprehensive sutras and Tantras. When he was aged 30, he succeeded in paying a visit to Great Master Tabo Lhagyi, under whom he studied for about three years, and grasped the essence of Tantricism of the Kargyu Sect, especially learning the practice of meditation, in which he attained the best achievements. From then on, he rose to be- come an erudite master of Tibetan Buddhism and shouldered responsibility for promoting the Tabo Kargyu. After he returned home in 1157, at Karma near Dorkhang Changdu Leiwuqi, Master Dusun Qenba established the Karma Lhading Monastery, also known as the Karma Dansa Monastery. From this base, he tried his best to propagate the teachings of the Kargyu Sect as well as his own teachings. Thus, there came into being the Karma Branch, named after the Karma Lhading Monastery, the first to divide from the Tabo Kargyu. At that time, at Dorkhang, there were altogether over one thousand disciples who followed Master Dusun Qenba, who controlled certain social powers in the area. He exerted great influence on the development of the Karma Branch of Tabo Kargyu, especially in the political and social situation of the Tibet Autonomous Region. For instance, he often mediated in large and important local conflicts, donated large quantities of treasures to the Gangpo Monastery and other monasteries in the Lhasa areas. In his later years, he went back the Lhasa area, and in 1189, he built Chubo Monastery at nearby Duilhung. Thereafter, the Karma Lhading and Duilhung monasteries became two ancestral monasteries of the Karma Branch of the Kargyu Sect of Tibetan Buddhism, while the Chubo Monastery was reconstructed many times and turned out to be the chief mon- astery of the Karma Branch of the Kargyu Sect.
Master Dusun Qenba died at the age of 83 at the Chubu Monastery he had established, but, before dying, he left an injunction that he would reincarnate, so his reincarnated soul boy should be searched for after his death. It was the great invention of Master Dusun Qenba, pioneering the "Reincarnation System of Living Buddhas" in the history of Tibetan Buddhism and even the whole of Buddhism.
The direct lineage of the Living Buddha system of the Karma Branch of Tabo Kargyu that Master Dusung Qenba created was the Living Buddha later called the "Black Cap Lineage" and also the Abbot of Chubo Monastery. With regard to the title of the Living Buddha of the Karma Kargyu and its origins", History and Doctrines of Different Buddhist Sects has the answer: "Although it was said that Master Dusun Qenba wore a black cap, so that the lineage he created was called 'the Black Cap Lineage', in fact it was from Master Karma Bashi that the lineage gained the title of 'Black Cap Lineage'. The emperor granted Master Karma Bashi a black cap symbolizing his official position." Con- ceming the accounts that Master Dusung Qenba wore the black cap, legend states: "At that time, hundreds of flying Taras weaved a special cap with their hairs and presented it to Master Dusung Qenba, ahd from then on [he] often wore this special and marvelous black cap." Actually, it is only an imaginary story and the historical record shows it was the second Living Buddha Karma Bashi who attained a black cap. The Black Cap Lineage was named after a black cap with gold edges that the Mongolian Khan Meng Ge bestowed on Master Dusung Qenba. Afterwards, it was handed down to the 17th lineage. Meanwhile, the Red Cap Lineage was named after a red cap with golden edges conferred by the Yuan government. When it was handed down to the 10th lineage, the Qing government banned the Red Cap Lineage because it was accused of involvement in a Gurkha invasion of the Xigaze area. From then on, the lineage of the Red Cap was ended.
Generally speaking, the history of the Karma Branch of the Tabo Kargyu was developed with the two main threads, the Black Cap Lineage and the Red Cap Lineage. So from the course of the two lineages' origination, development, and declination, we can acquire the whole history and current situation of the Karma Branch of the Tabo Kargyu.
- The Bharong Branch of the Tabo Kargyu
The Bharong Kargyu was founded by Master Darma Wanggyiu (living in the middle of the 12th century),, who was one of the close disciples of Master Tabo Lhagyi. Mas- ter Darma Wanggyiu built the Bharong Monastery at Angren near Xigaze. From this base, Master Darma Wanggyiu lec- tured on doctrine and taught disciples, and thus came into being the Bharong Branch of the Tabo Kargyu. Master Darma Wanggyiu mainly imparted the Great Scale Way of Tantricism and the Great Scale Stage of Sutraism and formed his own lineage. When he passed away, the chief abbot of the Bharong Monastery was chosen in a hereditary system among his descendents. However, the Bharong Branch came to be divided and declined due to continuous family disputes.
- The Phachu Branch of the Tabo Kargyu
The Phachu Branch is the largest among the four branches of the Tabo Kargyu. Its founder was Phamo Chupa (1110-1170), one of famous disciples of Master Tabao Lhagyi. He was born at Zhilhung Namshei in the southern area of Shekhang. In his childhood, Phamo Chupa began to study Buddhist scriptures under many teachers, and at the age of nine, he became a Buddhist monk and was named Dorgye Gyalpo. When he was 19, he happened to be an attendant of a rich man who journeyed to study Buddhism, giving Phamo Chupa an opportunity to study the teachings of various sects such as the Nyingma, Kardam and Sakya sects and so on. Later, Phamo Chupa paid a visit to Master Tabo Lhagyi, under whom he studied the teachings of the Tabo Kargyu' and rose to be one of the most famous disciples of Master Tabo Lhagyi. He later went back his home- land of Shekhang, where he accepted many disciples and imparted the Tantricism mainly got from Master Tabo Lhagyi and other teachings. Master Phamo Chupa was famous for his particular teachings and his reputation spread quickly in the neighborhood. In 1158, he left his homeland for the Tibet Autonomous Region and built a small monastery at Phamo, later well known as the Dansa Till Monastery. The construction of the Dansa Till Monastery marked the formal establishment of the Phachu Branch of the Tabo Kargyu. Master Phamo Chupa resided and lectured on the teachings of the Phachu Branch at Dansa Till Monastery for 13 years, and attained Parinirvana at the age of 60. In 1351, at Zedam in the Shannan area, Master Jamgqu Cyaincain built another monastery of the Phachu Branch, namely the Zedam Monastery. The Dansa Till and Zedam monasteries stressed different contents: the former stressed the practices of meditation of Tantricism, while the latter put emphasis on imparting Buddhist Sutra Theory. It deserves noting that the Phachu Branch of the Tabo Kargyu had a close relationship with politics: It set up with the clan of the Lhang family a local power base merging politics and religion to control the U-Tsang area for over 130 years until 1481, when it was overthrown by his subordinate Renbangba. Generally speaking, the Phachu Branch of the Tabo Kargyu was famous for the high virtues that its monks possessed, such as thrift, observing strict commandments, and the deep knowledge they attained. Therefore, altogether as many as 900 Buddhist monks and disciples assembled at the Dansa Till Monastery at one time, among of which there were over ten celebrated figures. Those eminent monks respectively managed to build monasteries and advocated their teachings in the Tibetan areas, and thus came into being the eight minor branches of the Phachu Branch of the Tabo Kargyu.
Four Major Branches and Eight Minor Branches of the Kargyu Sect
The Kargyu Sect, as an important sect with the largest number of branches of Tibetan Buddhism, had quite a large number of Buddhist monasteries and disciples. At present, the monasteries of the Kargyu Sect cover the Tibetan areas. From the viewpoint of time, the monasteries of the Kargyu were built over 300 years later than those of the Nyingma Sect, as the monasteries of the former were built with its gradual development. In 1121, Master Tabo Lhagyi built the Gangpo Monastery, ushering in the new period of the for- mal establishment of the Kargyu Sect. Thereafter, with its vigorous development, especially with the continual emergence of its branches, the monasteries of the Kargyu Sect covered all of the Tibetan areas -- the Tibet Autonomous Region and the Tibetan areas of Qinghai, Sichuan, Gansu and Yunnan provinces. According to latest statistics, in the Tibetan areas there are altogether 366 monasteries of the Kargyu Sect, which was the third after the Gelug and Nyingma sects in terms of number of monasteries. With re- gard to its distribution, the Tibet Autonomous Region ranks first with 217 monasteries, followed by Qinghai Province, with 101 monasteries, then Sichuan and Yunnan provinces, respectively with 43 and five monasteries.
We have learned the distribution of the monasteries of the Kargyu Seci in the Tibetan areas of People's Republic of China. As far as the internal parts of various areas are concerned, the monasteries of the Kargyu Sect are distributed unevenly. For instance, the Tibet Autonomous Region possesses 277 monasteries of the Kargyu Sect, the largest number of those in Tibetan areas. But in regard to their distribution, those monasteries stand far apart from one another. Their distribution is: 23 monasteries in Lhasa, 20 in Nyingchi, 39 in Sharman, 29 in Xigaze, 14 in Ngari, 28 in Nagou, and 78 in Qamdo. We can see the Qamdo area and the Tibet Autonomous Region have the largest number of monasteries. But compared with Yushu Prefecture of Qinghai Province, the Qamdo area is only ranked second in terms of the monasteries of the Kargyu Sect. This is because, among the 101 monasteries of the Kargyu Sect in Qinghai Province, there are as many as 93 in the Yushu area. In terms of geographical location, the Qamdo area in the Tibet Autonomous Region and the Yushu area in Qinghai Province border on each other, comprising comparative large influential circles of the Kargyu Sect. So, it is obvious that the two areas possess the largest number of disciples and the strongest influence.
In addition, viewed from the internal power of different branches of the Kargyu Sect, the Karma Branch of the Tabo Kargyu covers most of the Tibetan areas and each area has many Buddhist monasteries. For instance, in the Tibetan areas of Yunnan Province, which is far away from the Tibet Autonomous Region, there are three Buddhist monasteries of the Karma Branch out of five monasteries of the Kargyu Sect. It is obvious that the Karma Branch of the Tabo Kargyu has exerted a certain influence on the Tibetan areas.
Besides the Karma Branch, the Zhigung Branch also possesses comparatively great influence on the Tibetan areas. Around 1179, Master Renqenbei, the founder of the Zhigung Sub-Branch of the Phachu Branch, established its first monastery at Zhigung, the Zhigung Till Monastery, and thus the name of the sect came into being. The monastery stands today on the rise and fall of the Zhigung Sub-Branch of the Phachu Branch. Therefore, the Zhigung Till Monastery, as the ancestral monastery or the originating place of the Zhigung Sub-branch, has played a leading role in its continuation. Zhigung Till Monastery, located in today's Mochugongka County of the Tibet Autonomous Region, has 92 resident Buddhist monks, which is rare among all mon- asteries of the Zhigung Sub-Branch. So, it still maintains quite a large scale today, maintaining its prestige as the ancestral monastery among all the monasteries of the Zhigung SubBranch. It deserves mention that there are quite a number of Buddhist nunneries in the monasteries of the Zhigung Sub- Branch. There are five or six nunneries among the 21 Buddhist monasteries in the Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Qinghai Province, and quite a number of nuns reside in them. Today, there are 80 nuns in the Tarma Monastery in Namchan County of the Yushu area of Qinghai Province, 76 nuns in the Meiqin Monastery and 60 nuns in the Gaimar Monastery. So, it is obvious that the Zhigung Sub-Branch still maintains great influence in the Tibetan areas.
In terms of the position and its influence, the Dalhung Sub-branch has many similarities to the Zhigung Sub-branch. Dalhung Monastery, which was founded in 1180 by Master Dalhung Tangba Zhashibei, was the ancestral monastery of the Dalhung Sub-branch, playing an important role in its development and being held high regard in Tibetan Buddhism. It once made its way to part of the Tibetan areas of Gansu Province. For instance, in the northeast of Tianzhu Town of Gansu Province, there was a monastery with the same name. Historical records show that the Dalhung Monastery in Gansu Province was built by a Buddhist monk of the Dhalhung Lineage of the Kargyu Sect of Tibet Buddhism. However, the monastery was later converted to the Gelug Sect. At present, the Dalhung Monastery, located at Lingzhou County of the Tibet Autonomous Region, has basically resumed its former scale, with 105 resident monks. So, whether in terms of construction scale or social influence, it qualifies as a middle-level monastery. The Zhuba Sub-branch also has many monasteries in the Tibetan areas of the People's Republic of China. For instance, there are 10 monasteries of the Zhuba Sub-Branch in the Yushu Tibet Autonomous Prefecture in Qinghai Province, and among'of them are several large-scale ones, including the Sanmei Monastery in Namqian County, with over 250 resident monks; the Chaidhiu Monastery (over 270). In addition, there are also several middle-scale Buddhist nunneries of the Zhuba Sub-Branch in the Yushu Tibet Au- tonomous Prefecture. The ancestral monastery of the Zhuba Sub-Branch, the Relhung Monastery, has resumed its origi- nal look. Although a small-scale monastery, it is of crucial importance to the Zhuba Sub-branch of the Phachu Branch of the Tabo Kargyu. It stands on a summer pasture with an elevation of over 4,000 kilometers, at Relhung Village of Jamchi County in the Xigaze area of the Tibet Autonomous Region. Apart from the beautiful scenery and cool weather in the brief summer, it is bitterly cold in the other three seasons. Due to this, worshipers are fewer in number cornpared to other monasteries. Therefore, every hall in the monastery is usually locked except in summer. However, as the encestral monastery, the Relhung Monastery not only main ains its important position among the monasteries of the Zhuba Sub-branch around the country, but also holds high prestige abroad. At present, there are 20 resident monks. The Zhuba Sub-branch has made its way into Bhutan, Sikkim and other foreign countries, and sometimes the Relhung Monastery receives financial support from its foreign monasteries.
As far as the situation and influence of all the monaster- ies of the Kargyu Sect, there are three deserving special mention, which are the Chubu Monastery in Lhasa, Leiwuqi Monastery in the Qamdo area and Babung Monastery in the Ganzi area of Sichuan Province. These three monasteries have their own features and advantages. The Chubu Monastery, located in Duilhungdeqing County of Lhasa, as the ancestral monastery of the Karma Branch of the Tabo Kargyu, has a long history and was the formal residence of Living Buddha Karmaba of the Black Cap Lineage of the Kargyu Sect. Despite its limited number of resident monks, small scale and simple construction style, the Chubu Mon- astery still holds high prestige.
The Leiwuqi Monastery was built in 1276. Located in Leiwuqi County of Qamdo, the monastery was famous for it large scale and grand construction. In its heyday, there were over 4,000 resident monks, which was seldom seen in other Tibetan monasteries and only a few monasteries of the Gelug Sect, such as Zhaibung and Sera monasteries, can compare. From that we can learn the degree to which the Leiwuqi Monastery flourished. With regard to which sect it belongs to, some say the Karma Branch of the Tabo Kargyu, but it actually belongs to the Dalhung Sub-branch of the Phachu Branch of the Tabo Kargyu. At present, the Leiwuqi Monas- tery is still a large-scale monastery in the Tibetan areas, hous- ing over 400 resident monks, which in the Tibet Autono- mous Region ranks third after Tashilhungpo Monastery in the Xigaze area and Zhaibung Monastery in the western suburbs of Lhasa. So it can be concluded that the Leiwuqi Monastery is the largest monastery in scale of the Kargyu Sect in the Tibetan areas of People's Republic of China.
Babung Monastery, situated in Dege County of Gauzi Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Sichuan Province, is the largest monastery in terms of scale and influence in this area. The monastery was built in 1727, and, although its history is not very long, it developed rapidly due to the support of Tusi Dege, and possesses many sub-monasteries in the neighborhood. In 1957, it housed over 500 resident monks and possessed 70-80 sub-monasteries. At present, Babung, Monastery still maintains its influence. In Yushu Prefecture of Qinghai Province, where there are quite a number of sub monasteries.
In terms of the situation of its monasteries and its influence in the entire Tibetan area, the Kargyu Sect ranks third after the Gelug and Nyingma sects. Viewed from the course of historical development, the influence of the Kargyu Sect eventually declined in the Tibetan areas. Especially in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, with the formation and increasing expansion of the Gelug Sect, its influence declined rapidly. The reason is that the Gelug Sect adopted a measure to merge or convert the monasteries of the Kargyu Sect, thus causing the latter to gradually lose influence.
- The Gyonam Sect
The Gyonam Sect, as with other sects of Tibetan Buddhism, has its characteristic doctrines that have aroused disputes over history. Its main theory is called "Views of the Other Void", and it traces its origins back to Master Yumo Migyodorje (around the early stage of 12th century). At first, he was a yogic layman, later being ordained as a Buddhist monk and taking the ordainment name of Dambagyibo. He studied profound Tantricism under Kashmiri Master Banqen Dawagongbo, Zotun Namlhachi, one of disciples of Master Banqen Dawagongbo, and many other eminent Buddhist monks. When the teachings of the "Views of the Other Void" were handed down to Master Gongbang Tegyitsunzhu, the fifth disciple of Master Yumo Migyodorje, the Gyonam Sect came into being. At that time, Master Gongbang Tegyitsunzhu built Gyonam Monastery at Gyomonam in the northeast of Lhachi in the Xigaze area, and the Gyonam Sect began its religious activities. He had a talented disciple, Katsun Yundam Gyaincain, who succeeded to the lineage of the Gyonam Sect and took great pains to cultivate his successor, namely Master Dorpuba Xirab Gyaincain, the sect's eminent monk. The sect further developed during the time of Master Dorpuba Xirab Gyaincain. Thereafter it went into temporary decline, but revived thanks to some celebrated figures, such as Master Gyonam Gonggar Choqoi, Master Gyonamwa Tolonamta and so on. Among them Master Gyonamwa Tolonamta made an especial contribution.
Also called Gonggar Nyingbo, he was born at Kareqoinzeng on the border of the Lhasa and Xigaze areas. It was said that he was the reincarnated soul of Master Gonggar Choqoi. In his childhood, Tolonamta studied Buddhist scriptures in Gyonam Monastery. Later, he went from one teacher to another throughout the Tibetan areas to study Buddhist sutras and Tantras. At the age of 30, he was ordained as a Bhiksu and became an eminent monk of the Gyonam Sect. At first, the leadership in Lhaduijam supported his cause, but in the 16th century, this local power went into decline. Fortunately, Disi Zangbahan, the leader of another local power, came to his aid. So, in 1614, Master Tolonamta built another middle-scale monastery near Gyonam Monastery, namely Tadanpencholhin Monastery. From then on, Gyonam Monastery began to flourish once again. Not long after it was built, Master Tolonamta, at the invitation of the Khan of Outer Mongolia, went to the north of the Gobi desert (today's Ulan Bator) and stayed there for over 20 years to propagate Buddhism. Master Tolonamta managed to build many monasteries there, where the Kara Tribe worshipped. Because of his-great efforts, Master Tolonamta was respectfully called Jebtsundamba and enjoyed high prestige in the Khulun area. In 1634, he achieved Parinirvana at Khulun. In the following year, Khan Tusheitu of the Karka Tribe happened to have a son, and the boy was regarded as the reincarnated soul of Master Tolonamta, so that the first Jebtsundamba appeared.
In 1649, he traveled to Tibet to study Buddhism. When he finished his study and was to return home, the 5th Dalai Lama, relying on his religious powers, ordered Jebtsundamba to convert to the Gelug Sect, thus leading the masses of the outer Mongolian area to follow the Gelug way. What's more, the 5th Dalai Lama converted all the monasteries of the Gyonam Sect, including the famous Tadanpencholhin Monastery to the Gelug Sect. Only History of Indian Buddhism by Tolonamta and other occasional works of the Gyonam Sect were left, while other scriptures advocating its teachings were burnt or hidden away. Therefore, by the end of the 17th century, the Gyonam Sect had disappeared in the Tibet Autonomous Region, but it succeeded in surviving in other Tibetan areas. At present, the Gyonam Sect still maintains certain influence in the Arbei area of Sichuan Province and the Golo Area of Qinghai Province. For instance, there arc altogether over 30 of its monasteries in Arba, Markhang, Rangtang counties in the Arba Prefecture, and in Gande, Juchi, Banma counties of Golo Prefecture. Among them, Namtang Monastery in Namtang County, as the ancestral monastery of the Gyonam Sect in the Arba and Golo areas, still enjoys high prestige and position among disciples and followers of the Gyonam Sect.
At present, in Namtang County, there are seven main monasteries, namely Shayan, Hungtub, Risob, Gayatang, Qutang, Zhongnamtang, and Gongbolhagang. In Markhang County, there arc Hermoya, Ganmonoi, Barlhang, Khangshan, Yanmodi, Zhaxirigang and Ranggu monasteries and others. In Arba County there are mainly the Segongbar, Cinam, Tarjo, Yagung and Arho monasteries.
In Gande County of the Golo Tibetan Autonomous Pre- fecture of Qinghai Province, there are three main monasteries. They are: Zhaxiqulhang Monastery, with 70 resident monks; Lhungshigyi Monastery, with over 70 resident monks; Chayilhung Monastery, with 25 resident monks. When Chayilhung Monastery holds religious activities, over 145 Buddhist monks usually assemble there.
In Banma County of the Golo Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, there are primarily Arshijamgyigung Monastery, with 48 resident monks and two living Buddhas, as well as Namben Monastery, with 46 resident monks.
In Juchi County of the Golo Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, there arc primarily two monasteries. They are: Jammo Monastery, which housed 100 resident monks in the monastery acid over 200 floating monks in society; as well as Nyingchi Monastery, with 65 resident monks. In fact, Nyingchi Monastery was a particular monastery that combined to follow the Gelug Sect and the Gyonam Sect, and always monks of two sects presided over religious activities.
- The Gelug Sect of Tibetan Buddhism
Started from Tsongkapa, the Gelug Sect was one of the last important ones to form. Tsongkapa is an eminent person in Tibetan history, not only as the founder of the Gelug Sect, but also as a philosopher and religious reformer. He was born in the Zongka area of Amdo, around today's Tar Monastery in Hongzong County of Qinghai Province. Later, he was honored with the title of Master Tsongkapa. At the age of seven, he formally became a monk under Mas- ter Tunzurenqin at Shaqoin Monastery, which was located in eastern Qinghai province, north of the Yellow River. From then on, he got his ordination name Lobsam Zhaba. After ten years of hard work, he attained a substantial grasp of Buddhist classics from both the open and secret schools. In 1372, when he was 16, he left for the U-Tsang region to study Buddhist scriptures. In 1374, he reached Lhasa and began his career for the study of Buddhism. He followed many grand masters of different sects such as the Nyingma, Kargyu, Sakya, and Kardam sects. In the end, he gradually formed his own religious ideology combining features of other sects. In 1402, on the basis of the famous Buddhist scripture The lamp that Shows the Path to Enlightenment, written by Master Artisa, he finished The Gradual Way to Enlightenment, and then, in 1406, The Gradual way to Tantricism, a work about esoteric school of Tibetan Buddhism. Both works represent his ideology.
In 1409, under the financial support of Renqinbei and his son Renqinlhungbo, local nobles in Phachu, Tsongkapa constructed the Gandain Monastery along the slopes of Wangbori Mountain, 30 kilometers northeast of Lhasa. After that, Tsongkapa established a complete monastic institution as well as monk-education system. He required his disciples to strictly abide by Buddhist disciplines, give equal importance to the open and esoteric schools and follow the priority order of learning scriptures, namely open school sutras before esoteric school Tantras. Henceforth, another new sect of Tibetan Buddhism, based on Gandain Monastery, began to form, putting a perfect end to formation of various sects of Tibetan Buddhism. In 1416, Tsongkapa ordered Jamyang Qoigyi, one of his disciples, to build Zhaibung Monastery in the western suburbs of Lhasa, and in 1418, another monastery called Sera monastery in the northern suburbs of Lhasa by Sagya Yeshe, also Tsongkapa's disciple, Thus, the three main monasteries of Lhasa had been formed, which laid a foundation for the development of the Gelug sect.
Following the construction of the three monasteries in Lhasa, in 1447, the Tashilhungpo Monastery was built by Gandain Zhuba (1391-1474), one of disciples of Master Tsongkapa, in the Xigaze area. Later, Shashirabsambo built the Qamdo Monastery in the Qamdo area, and Shashirabsambo constructed Damo Monastery in the Ali area of western Tibet. Thus, the Gelug Sect had developed a comparatively solid monastic organization throughout the Tibetan areas. Its influence spread rapidly and soon surpassed its predecessors, which was unprecedented in the history of Tibetan Buddhism. In the 16th century, its initial scale had come into being in the Tibetan areas, and then in 1642, the Gelug sect gained its political leading position and posed a threat to other sects, owing to the Fifth Dalai Lama's authority who had gained titles and support from the central government of the Qing dynasty. Many monasteries of other sects was forced to convert to the Gelug Sect. Its six monasteries (namely Gandain, Sera, Zhaibung monasteries of Lhasa, Tar and Tashilhungbo Monasteries respectively in today's Qinghai and Gansu provinces, and Labrang Monastery in Gansu Province), and its four Living Buddha system (namely Dalai, Panchen, Zhamgya, and Jebtsundamba) are symbols of the authority and power of the Gelug Sect, which has had profound influ- ence on people's lives in the fields of politics, economy and culture among the Tibetan, Mongolian and other nationalities. The following is a brief introduction of the present situation.
(1) Gandain Monastery
Gandain Monastery, as one df the six key monasteries of the Gelug Sect and three major monasteries located in Lhasa, is the ancestral monastery of the Gelug Sect. Built along the slopes of Wangbori Mountain about 30 kilometers northeast of Lhasa, it is just like a mountain city. Unlike other monasteries of the Gelug Sect, the Gandain Monas= tery chose talented monks as its Gandain Chiba (Chief Abbot) instead of reincarnation system of the Dalai Lama or Panchen Lama. Tsongkapa, the founder of the Gandain Monastery, was succeeded by Gyachogyi, the second Chief Abbot, and until 1954, the position had been handed down to the 96th Gandain Chiba. As the ancestral monastery of the Gelug Sect, it enjoyed the highest rank in Tibetan Buddhism, especially the Gandain Chiba, ranking third following Dalai and Panchen Lamas, although the monastery had only 3,300 resident monks in history, fewer than the Zhaibung and Sera Monasteries. It was once pulled down by local people during the ten-year Culture Revolution and was rebuilt in 1980 with huge funds allocated by the central government of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Now, its main buildings such as the Grand Sutra Hall have been renovated, and there are 277 resident monks.
(2) Zhaibung Monastery
Zhaibung Monastery is the most important of the three monasteries in Lhasa. Sitting in a southern slope gully on Gebeiwoze Mountain, in the western suburbs of Lhasa, it is composed of the Gandain Phodrang (meaning Paradise Palace), Grand Sutra Hall and four Buddhist colleges, or Zhachang in Tibetan, for monks to learn Buddhist scriptures (including Losailing, Deyang, Ngaba and Gomang Zhacjangs). It is a monastery with the largest scale, highest rank, and largest number of monks in the history of the Tibetan areas. During the period of the 5th Dalai Lama, he established a powerful local government headquartered in the Gandain Phodrang, hence the government was called Gandain Phodrang regime, the political power center of Tibet at that time when the Zhaibung Monastery enjoyed privileges in religious affairs. The highest number in the Zhaibung Monastery was 7,700 people, with 10,000 resident monks as its maximum permitted number. The highest position in the monastery is Chuogin Chiba (chief abbot) and it has 427 resident monks today. The famous Shoton (Sour Milk Drinking) Festival on the 30th day of the 6th Tibetan month, started from the Zhaibung Monastery. Millions of believers and tourist swarm into the monastery for the grand and bustling fair.
(3) Sera Monastery
Sera Monastery is located on the southern slope of Serawoze Mountain in the northern suburbs of Lhasa. Of all the buildings, the most grand and magnificent are the Grand Sutra Hall and Zhacang (Buddhist colleges) buildings composed of the Meba Zhacang, the Ngaba Zhacang, the Gyi Zhacang and so on. The monastery has a rich collection of rare cultural relics, including Buddhist scriptures, Tangka paintings and Statues of Buddha. It has 327 resident monks today. It attracts an endless stream of pilgrims and sightseers.
(4)Tashilhungpo Monastery
Tashilhungpo Monastery, located in the northern suburbs of Xigaze City, is one of the six major monasteries of the Gelug Sect, and the largest one in western Tibet. It was built by Gendain Zhupa, the favorite disciple of Master Tsongkapa. He was posthumously recognized as the first Dalai Lama. Being the residential place of successive Panchen Lamas, Tashilhungpo Monastery gained a higher position in Tibetan areas. It houses 786 residential monks today. The monastery boasts the statue for Maitreya Buddha, the biggest statue of Buddha of the world, and pagodas of previous Panchen Lama that are objects of pilgrimage. With imposing halls standing in great numbers and large scale, the Tashilhungpo Monastery is regarded as a large scale Tibetan Buddhist monastery in Xigaze, and even in Tibetan areas as a whole.
(5) Tar Monastery `
It lies in Huangzhong County, Qinghai Province, 26 kilometers from Xining City and birthplace of Master Tsongkapa. Constructed by local disciples in his memory, the monastery holds an important position in the fields of Tibetan Buddhism, especially in the Gelug Sect. Actually, the Tar Monastery gradually took shape from small to large scale, first as a meditation chamber built in 1560, turning into a Hall of the Buddha Maitreya 17 years later, finally forming today's scale after continuous reconstruction. The building complex is mainly composed of the Grand Sutra Hall and four Buddhist colleges (Zhacang), including the Open School Zhacang, Tantric School Zhacang, Medical Zhacang and the Time of Wheel Zhacang. It housed as many as 3,600 resident monks in its heyday. The monastery is famous for its butter sculptures, frescoes and duisui embroidery, which is listed as the Three Arts of the Tar Monastery. Architecturally speaking, it is a mixture of Tibetan and Han palace styles, which has become a presti- gious Holy Land and scenic spot in Qinghai Province for its ancient history, rich collection and convenient transportation. Housing over 500 resident monks, the Monastery holds vari- ous religious activities according to relative religious rites.
(6) Labrang Monastery
Labrang Monastery is the biggest Tibetan Buddhist Monastery in Gansu Province. Built by Jamyang Living Buddha Erwangzongze, it is located in the western suburbs of Shahe County in the Gannam Tibetan Autonomous Pre- fecture of Gansu Province. Sitting at the foot of a hill and besides a stream, the place is famous for its splendid scenery. Today's Labrrang Monastery is mainly composed of the Grand Sutra Hall and six Buddhist colleges, namely Tiesam Lamwa, Jumaiba, Judoba, Dingker, Manba and Jido Zhacangs. The buildings are grand and imposing, housing 3,600 resident monks at their peak. Labrang Monastery is famous for its complete institutional system and generations of eminent monks, enjoying a highest prestige in the field of Tibetan Buddhism. Living Buddha Jamyang is the sixth chief abbot in the line. At present, the monastery is the biggest religious/ cultural center in the Amdo Tibetan area.
(7) The Shigye Sect
The Shigye sect was founded by Master Padainbasangyi. According to History and Doctrines of Different Buddhist Sects, he was born in south India, where he followed many scholars and masters to achieve high attainment in Buddhism. It was said that he went to Tibet five times and cultivated many disciples. On his last visit, he traveled to Wutai Mounain of the Han from the Tibet Autonomous Region, and during the journey his name became well known to the Han people.
The word "Shigye" literally means "put out ", so it refers to extinguishing all worries in the human world. [t indicates that if one practices according to the sect's teachings and doctrines, the worries of the human world as well as their origins will be extinguished, and the existence of life and death will cease. On theory, the Shigye Sect advocates the knowledge of "nature void", while in practice in adopts a series of ascetic rituals. In 1097, Master Padainbasangyi built a monastery at Dingri. In the 14th century, the Shigye Sect owned several monasteries and furthered its development in the Tibet Autonomous Region. But, in the 15th century, it went into decline and gradually disappeared. Although the Shigye Sect had vanished as an independent sect, part of its doctrines and rituals, which were assimilated by other sects of Tibetan Buddhism, still remain.
(8) The Gyoyu Sect
In Tibetan, the word "Gyoyu" has two characters, so there are also two meanings. The first meaning refers to the fact the doctrines of the sect can cut off all origins of worry in the human world; the second meaning indicates that one can attain the fields of nature void by practicing meditation.
The teachings of the Gyoyu Sect trace back to the theory of Master Padainbasangyi. So Master Tuguan Qoigyinima described the Gyoyu Sect as a branch of the Shigye Sect. It can be said that the two sects are closely related. According to History and Doctrines of Different Buddhist Sects, when Master Padainbasangyi entered the Tibet Autonomous Region for the third time, he imparted his teachings to Lam Gyodain Soinam and Yalhung Mareseibo, thus forming two lineages of the Gyoyu Sect. The first lineage was handed down from Yalhung Mareseibo, who imparted the teachings to his attendant Nyingba Seirong, who then handed them on to Zitun and Suntun. The successor of Zitun was Namtun, while the successors of Suntun were Gedainshemo, Zangtun and then Nyingtun. The successors of this lineage were male, so it was called the Male Lineage of the Gyoyu Sect. The second lineage was handed down by Lama Gyodain Soinam, who imparted her teachings to the female disciple Magyolhazhen. Then, the successors of this lineage were female, creating the Female Lineage of the Gyoyu Sect. The sect come into being in the 11th century and began to spread in the Tibetan areas. But due to its slack institutions, lax discipline, especially lack of financial support, it failed to build more monasteries. So the fate of the Gyoyu Sect was the same as that of the Shigye Sect, and in the 15th century, it had vanished. But the doctrines are mainly from The Great Perfection Sutra, Collection of Tantricism, and are recognized by masses of Buddhist disciples and followers. Therefore, many of the teachings of the Gyoyu Sect have been assimilated by other sects of Tibetan Buddhism.
At present, the foundation of the Gyoyu Sect is still maintained in the Tibetan Autonomous Region, namely Sanrikarma Monastery. This is located on a small slope in the north of Sand County of the Shar an area. It is a middlescale monastery, with only two stories. On the first story are the statues of Buddha Sakyamuni, Master Tsongkapa and his two close disciples. The Tibetan edition of the Tripitaka, including Gangyur and Dangyur, are also housed here. The second story is a sutra hall housing the statues of Master Magyolhazhen and other eminent Buddhist monks of the Gyoyu Sect. In addition, there is a cave where Master Magyolhazhen once practiced meditation, and in the cave are his statues as well as magic shoes and other offerings. It was said that in this outer cave there is another secret cave that is called the Ten Thousand Pleasure Hall, with 108 supporting pillars, where Master Magyolhazhen secretly prac- ticed meditation. In 1086, Master Magyolhazhen built Sanri